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Dementia is a syndrome associated with many neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by a general decline in cognitive abilities that affects a person's ability to perform everyday activities. This typically involves problems with memory, thinking, behavior, and motor control. Aside from memory impairment and a disruption in thought patterns, the most common symptoms of dementia include emotional problems, difficulties with language, and decreased motivation. The symptoms may be described as occurring in a continuum over several stages. Dementia ultimately has a significant effect on the individual, their caregivers, and their social relationships in general. A diagnosis of dementia requires the observation of a change from a person's usual mental functioning and a greater cognitive decline than might be caused by the normal aging process.
Cognitive disorders (CDs), also known as neurocognitive disorders (NCDs), are a category of mental health disorders that primarily affect cognitive abilities including learning, memory, perception, and problem-solving. Neurocognitive disorders include delirium, mild neurocognitive disorders, and major neurocognitive disorder. They are defined by deficits in cognitive ability that are acquired, typically represent decline, and may have an underlying brain pathology. The DSM-5 defines six key domains of cognitive function: executive function, learning and memory, perceptual-motor function, language, complex attention, and social cognition.
The mini–mental state examination (MMSE) or Folstein test is a 30-point questionnaire that is used extensively in clinical and research settings to measure cognitive impairment. It is commonly used in medicine and allied health to screen for dementia. It is also used to estimate the severity and progression of cognitive impairment and to follow the course of cognitive changes in an individual over time; thus making it an effective way to document an individual's response to treatment. The MMSE's purpose has been not, on its own, to provide a diagnosis for any particular nosological entity.
The Yale–Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) is a test to rate the severity of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms.
The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) is a 30-item self-report assessment used to identify depression in the elderly. The scale was first developed in 1982 by J.A. Yesavage and others.
Cognitive impairment is an inclusive term to describe any characteristic that acts as a barrier to the cognition process or different areas of cognition. Cognition, also known as cognitive function, refers to the mental processes of how a person gains knowledge, uses existing knowledge, and understands things that are happening around them using their thoughts and senses. Cognitive impairment can be in different domains or aspects of a person's cognitive function including memory, attention span, planning, reasoning, decision-making, language, executive functioning, and visuospatial functioning. The term cognitive impairment covers many different diseases and conditions and may also be symptom or manifestation of a different underlying condition. Examples include impairments in overall intelligence, specific and restricted impairments in cognitive abilities, neuropsychological impairments, or it may describe drug-induced impairment in cognition and memory. Cognitive impairments may be short-term, progressive, or permanent.
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a neurocognitive disorder which involves cognitive impairments beyond those expected based on an individual's age and education but which are not significant enough to interfere with instrumental activities of daily living. MCI may occur as a transitional stage between normal aging and dementia, especially dementia due to Alzheimer's disease. It includes both memory and non-memory impairments. About 50 percent of people diagnosed with MCI have Alzheimer's disease and go on to develop Alzheimer's dementia within five years. MCI can also serve as an early indicator for other types of dementia, although MCI may remain stable or even remit.
The MCI Screen is a brief neuropsychological test checking for mild cognitive impairment (MCI).
The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE) is a questionnaire that can be filled out by a relative or other supporter of an older person to determine whether that person has declined in cognitive functioning. The IQCODE is used as a screening test for dementia. If the person is found to have significant cognitive decline, then this needs to be followed up with a medical examination to determine whether dementia is present.
The comprehensive aphasia test (CAT) was created by Kate Swinburn, Gillian Porter and David Howard. The CAT is a new test for people who have acquired aphasia, the impairment of language ability. The comprehensive assessment can be completed over one or two sessions. The test contains a cognitive screening, a language battery and a disability questionnaire. The authors of the comprehensive aphasia test take account of current linguistic and psychological theory and other variable that impact aphasic performance. The CAT was published in 2005 and was the first new aphasia test in English for 20 years. The test is designed to (1) screen for associated cognitive deficits,(2) assess language impairment in people with aphasia, (3) investigate the consequences of the aphasia on the individual's lifestyle and emotional well-being, and (4) monitor changes in the aphasia and its consequences over time.
The General Practitioner Assessment of Cognition (GPCOG) is a brief screening test for cognitive impairment introduced by Brodaty et al. in 2002. It was specifically developed for the use in the primary care setting.
The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a widely used screening assessment for detecting cognitive impairment. It was created in 1996 by Ziad Nasreddine in Montreal, Quebec. It was validated in the setting of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and has subsequently been adopted in numerous other clinical settings. This test consists of 30 points and takes 10 minutes for the individual to complete. The original English version is performed in seven steps, which may change in some countries dependent on education and culture. The basics of this test include short-term memory, executive function, attention, focus, and more.
The Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination (ACE) and its subsequent versions are neuropsychological tests used to identify cognitive impairment in conditions such as dementia.
The mini-SEA is a neuropsychological battery aiming to evaluate the impairment of the social and emotional cognition. Developed by Maxime Bertoux in 2012, the mini-SEA has been preferentially designed for the assessment, follow-up and diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases such as the frontotemporal dementia, but is more generally designed to evaluate the integrity of the frontal lobes.
The Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ) is a self-report questionnaire designed to help detect bipolar disorder. It focuses on symptoms of hypomania and mania, which are the mood states that separate bipolar disorders from other types of depression and mood disorder. It has 5 main questions, and the first question has 13 parts, for a total of 17 questions. The MDQ was originally tested with adults, but it also has been studied in adolescents ages 11 years and above. It takes approximately 5–10 minutes to complete. In 2006, a parent-report version was created to allow for assessment of bipolar symptoms in children or adolescents from a caregiver perspective, with the research looking at youths as young as 5 years old. The MDQ has become one of the most widely studied and used questionnaires for bipolar disorder, and it has been translated into more than a dozen languages.
The Saint Louis University Mental Status (SLUMS) Exam is a brief screening assessment used to detect cognitive impairment. It was developed in 2006 at the Saint Louis University School of Medicine Division of Geriatric Medicine, in affiliation with a Veterans' Affairs medical center. The test was initially developed using a veteran population, but has since been adopted as a screening tool for any individual displaying signs of mild cognitive impairment. The intended population typically consists of individuals 60 years and above that display any signs of cognitive deficit. Unlike other widely-used cognitive screens, such as the Mini-Mental State Examination and Montreal Cognitive Assessment, the SLUMS is free to access and use by all healthcare professionals.
The Child PTSD Symptom Scale (CPSS) is a free checklist designed for children and adolescents to report traumatic events and symptoms that they might feel afterward. The items cover the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), specifically, the symptoms and clusters used in the DSM-IV. Although relatively new, there has been a fair amount of research on the CPSS due to the frequency of traumatic events involving children. The CPSS is usually administered to school children within school boundaries, or in an off-site location to assess symptoms of trauma. Some, but not all, people experience symptoms after a traumatic event, and in serious cases, these people may not get better on their own. Early and accurate identification, especially in children, of experiencing distress following a trauma could help with early interventions. The CPSS is one of a handful of promising measures that has accrued good evidence for reliability and validity, along with low cost, giving it good clinical utility as it addresses a public health need for better and larger scale assessment.
The Self-administered Gerocognitive Examination is a brief cognitive assessment instrument for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and early dementia, created by Douglas Scharre, Professor of Clinical Neurology and Psychiatry at Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center in Columbus, Ohio.
The University of California, San Diego Performance-Based Skills Assessment (UPSA) was created by Dr. Thomas L. Patterson to provide a more reliable measure of every day functioning in patients with schizophrenia than the previously utilized methods such as self-report, clinician ratings or direct observation.
The Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Subscale (ADAS-Cog) is a brief neuropsychological assessment used to assess the severity of cognitive symptoms of dementia. It is one of the most widely used cognitive scales in clinical trials and is considered to be the “gold standard” for assessing antidementia treatments.
References
- ↑ "About MoCA".
- 1 2 Nasreddine, Ziad S.; Phillips, Natalie A.; Bédirian, Valérie; Charbonneau, Simon; Whitehead, Victor; Collin, Isabelle; Cummings, Jeffrey L.; Chertkow, Howard (April 2005). "The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 53 (4): 695–699. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x. ISSN 0002-8614. PMID 15817019. S2CID 9014589.
- ↑ Hawkins, Derek (January 17, 2018). "Trump's cognitive test was created by a Lebanese immigrant to Canada". Washington Post.
- ↑ "Canadian doctor behind cognitive test says Trump's score is 'normal performance'". CTVNews. July 23, 2020.
- ↑ Dautzenberg, Géraud; Lijmer, Jeroen; Beekman, Aartjan (December 27, 2019). "Diagnostic accuracy of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) for cognitive screening in old age psychiatry: Determining cutoff scores in clinical practice. Avoiding spectrum bias caused by healthy controls". International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 35 (3): 261–269. doi:10.1002/gps.5227. ISSN 0885-6230. PMC 7028034 . PMID 31650623.
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