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The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe,the Iranian plateau,and the northern Indian subcontinent. Some European languages of this family,English,French,Portuguese,Russian,Dutch,and Spanish,have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families,of which there are eight groups with languages still alive today:Albanian,Armenian,Balto-Slavic,Celtic,Germanic,Hellenic,Indo-Iranian,and Italic;and another nine subdivisions that are now extinct.
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language,called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics,which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a biological family tree,or in a subsequent modification,to species in a phylogenetic tree of evolutionary taxonomy. Linguists therefore describe the daughter languages within a language family as being genetically related.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans are a hypothetical prehistoric population of Eurasia who spoke Proto-Indo-European (PIE),the ancestor of the Indo-European languages according to linguistic reconstruction.
Sino-Tibetan,also cited as Trans-Himalayan in a few sources,is a family of more than 400 languages,second only to Indo-European in number of native speakers. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 billion native speakers of Chinese languages. Other Sino-Tibetan languages with large numbers of speakers include Burmese and the Tibetic languages. Other languages of the family are spoken in the Himalayas,the Southeast Asian Massif,and the eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Most of these have small speech communities in remote mountain areas,and as such are poorly documented.
In historical linguistics,the homeland or Urheimat of a proto-language is the region in which it was spoken before splitting into different daughter languages. A proto-language is the reconstructed or historically-attested parent language of a group of languages that are genetically related.
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists;its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages.
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The Kurgan hypothesis is the most widely accepted proposal to identify the Proto-Indo-European homeland from which the Indo-European languages spread out throughout Europe and parts of Asia. It postulates that the people of a Kurgan culture in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea were the most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). The term is derived from the Turkic word kurgan (курга́н),meaning tumulus or burial mound.
Yurok is an Algic language. It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California,most of whom now speak English. The last known native speaker died in 2013. As of 2012,Yurok language classes were taught to high school students,and other revitalization efforts were expected to increase the population of speakers.
Eurasiatic is a proposed language macrofamily that would include many language families historically spoken in northern,western,and southern Eurasia.
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The Anatolian hypothesis,also known as the Anatolian theory or the sedentary farmer theory,first developed by British archaeologist Colin Renfrew in 1987,proposes that the dispersal of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic Anatolia. It is the main competitor to the Kurgan hypothesis,or steppe theory,which enjoys more academic favor.
The Armenian hypothesis,also known as the Near Eastern model,is a theory of the Proto-Indo-European homeland,initially proposed by linguists Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Ivanov in the early 1980s,which suggests that the Proto-Indo-European language was spoken during the 5th–4th millennia BC in "eastern Anatolia,the southern Caucasus,and northern Mesopotamia".
The Proto-Indo-European homeland was the prehistoric linguistic homeland of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE). From this region,its speakers migrated east and west,and went on to form the proto-communities of the different branches of the Indo-European language family.
The Survey of California and Other Indian Languages at the University of California at Berkeley documents,catalogs,and archives the indigenous languages of the Americas. The survey also hosts events related to language revitalization and preservation.
Tandy Warnow is an American computer scientist and Grainger Distinguished Chair in Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. She is known for her work on the reconstruction of evolutionary trees,both in biology and in historical linguistics,and also for multiple sequence alignment methods.
The Indo-European migrations were hypothesized migrations of Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) speakers,and subsequent migrations of people speaking derived Indo-European languages,which took place approx. 4000 to 1000 BCE,potentially explaining how these languages came to be spoken across a large area of Eurasia,from India and Iran,to Europe.
In Indo-European studies,the salmon problem or salmon argument is an outdated argument in favour of placing the Indo-European urheimat in the Baltic region,as opposed to the Eurasian Steppe,based on the cognate etymology of the respective words for salmon in Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages. The word's wide distribution likely means it existed in its current form in a Proto-Indo-European language.
The Inner–Outer hypothesis of the subclassification of the Indo-Aryan language family argues for a division of the family into two groups,an Inner core and an Outer periphery,evidenced by shared traits of the languages falling into one of the two groups. Proponents of the theory generally believe the distinction to be the result of gradual migrations of Indo-Aryan speakers into India,with the inner languages representing a second wave of migration speaking a different dialect of Old Indo-Aryan,overtaking the first-wave speakers in the center and relegating them to the outer region.
The farming/language dispersal hypothesis proposes that many of the largest language families in the world dispersed along with the expansion of agriculture. This hypothesis was proposed by archaeologists Peter Bellwood and Colin Renfrew. It has been widely debated and archaeologists,linguists,and geneticists often disagree with all or part of the hypothesis.
References
- ↑ "Andrew Garrett" . Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ↑ Johnston, Jesse (June 26, 2013). "Voices for the Future". National Endowment for the Humanities. Retrieved January 24, 2014.
- ↑ Will Chang, David Hall, Chundra Cathcart, Andrew Garrett, "Ancestry-constrained phylogenetic analysis supports the Indo-European steppe hypothesis,"Language, Vol. 91, No. 1 (MARCH 2015), pp. 194-244
- ↑ https://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/best-paper-language-award-previous-holders
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