Antiquities trade

Last updated

The antiquities trade is the exchange of antiquities and archaeological artifacts from around the world. This trade may be illicit or completely legal. The legal antiquities trade abides by national regulations, allowing for extraction of artifacts for scientific study whilst maintaining archaeological and anthropological context. [1] [2] [ clarification needed ] The illicit antiquities trade involves non-scientific extraction that ignores the archaeological and anthropological context from the artifacts.

Contents

The legal trade in antiquities abide by the laws of the countries in which the artifacts originate. These laws establish how the antiquities may be extracted from the ground and the legal process in which artifacts may leave the country. In many countries excavations and exports were prohibited without official licenses already in the 19th century, as for example in the Ottoman Empire. According to the laws of the countries of origin, there can't be a legal trade with archaeological artifact without official papers. However, most national laws still overturn these regulations.

History

Antiquity (ca. 3000 BC - 500 AD): During antiquity, trade in antiquities and artefacts played an important role in the exchange between different civilizations and cultures. Greek and Roman artworks were traded throughout Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. This trade often took place in the context of diplomatic relations, military conquests and trade routes. Ancient port cities such as Alexandria, Rome and Athens served as important centers for the trade in art and other goods.

Middle Ages (ca. 500 AD - 1500 AD): During the Middle Ages, the trade in antiquities became less important as European society was characterized by political instability, cultural change and economic difficulties. Many ancient works of art were destroyed, lost or reused, and trade in them was less pronounced than in antiquity. Nevertheless, some ancient works of art were treasured as valuable relics of the past and kept by aristocratic collectors and churches.

Renaissance (14th to 17th century): The Renaissance was a time of cultural and intellectual awakening in Europe, during which there was a renewed interest in antiquity. Antiquities were valued and collected by scholars, artists and collectors. The trade in antiquities flourished again and some objects were recovered from ancient Roman villas and ruins and kept in private collections. Renaissance princes and nobles collected ancient sculptures, paintings and coins to demonstrate their status and sophistication.

Baroque period (17th and 18th centuries): Antiquities were also collected and traded during the Baroque period, with Roman sculptures and Greek vases being particularly sought after. Collectors such as kings, nobles and wealthy citizens expanded their art collections and promoted the trade in antiquities. The demand for antiquities led to the discovery and excavation of further ancient sites, particularly in Italy and Greece. The sons and daughters of the European aristocracy, and later also the upper middle classes, visited ancient sites on the Grand Tour (Cavalier Tour or Cavaliers' Journey) and purchased the highest quality ancient works of art possible in the respective countries.

Classicism and Neoclassicism (18th and 19th centuries): In the 18th and 19th centuries, the trade in antiquities reached a peak as Classicism and later Neoclassicism influenced art production and aesthetics. Ancient Greek and Roman art served as a model for contemporary artists and formed the basis for art movements such as Classicism and Neoclassicism. Collectors, museums and public institutions acquired antiquities. In the 18th century, there was a flourishing trade in antiquities, particularly in Rome. Johann Joachim Winckelmann was appointed superintendent of all antiquities (Commissario delle Antichità) in and around Rome in 1763. One of his tasks was to control the antiquities trade.

Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, auction houses such as Christie's and Sotheby's established themselves as major players in the antique art trade, with numerous antique objects being offered at auction. Today, the antiquities trade remains an important part of the global art market, and collectors and institutions continue to collect and research antique objects.

Illicit trade

Illicit or illegal antiquities are those found in illegal or unregulated excavations, and traded covertly. [3] The black market trade of illicit antiquities is supplied by looting and art theft. Artifacts are often those that have been discovered and unearthed at archeological digs and then transported internationally through a middleman to often unsuspecting collectors, museums, antique dealers, and auction houses. [4] The antiquities trade is much more careful in recent years about establishing the provenance of cultural artifacts. [5] [6] Some estimates of billions of dollars in annual sales are demonstrably false. [7] [8]

The true extent of the trade is unknown as incidents of looting are underreported. It is not unheard of for stolen pieces to be found in auction houses before they have been noticed as missing from their original home. [9]

It is believed by many archaeologists and cultural heritage lawyers that the demand created by circulation, marketing, and collectorship of ancient artifacts causes the continuous looting and destruction of archaeological sites around the world. [10] [11] Archaeological artifacts are internationally protected by the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and international trade in cultural property of dubious provenance is restricted by the UNESCO Convention (1970) on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. After years of resistance, the United States played a major role in drafting and promoting the 1970 Convention.

Examples of looting of archaeological sites for the black market:

Response

The protection of antiquities necessitates the formulation and implementation of comprehensive public policies. These policies address issues such as provenance, looting prevention, and repatriation, ensuring the ethical circulation of historical artifacts. On 16 November 1972, UNESCO adopted the international Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. [12]

The export of antiquities is now heavily controlled by law in almost all countries and by the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, [13] but a large and increasing trade in illicit antiquities continues. Further complicating matters is the existence of archaeological forgeries, such as the Etruscan terracotta warriors, the Persian Princess, [14] and the Getty kouros.

The Euphronios Krater has been returned to Italy by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Euphronios krater side B MET L.2006.10.jpg
The Euphronios Krater has been returned to Italy by the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

There has been a growing effort to repatriate artifacts illicitly obtained and traded on the international market and return them to their countries of origin and preserve their cultural value. Such artifacts include those held by reputable museums which are unaware of their illegal provenance, such as the Getty Museum [15] (e.g. Victorious Youth) and the Metropolitan Museum of Art (e.g. Euphronios Krater [16] ). In July 2023, a repatriation ceremony was held at the Indian Consulate in New York City to celebrate the handing over of 105 trafficked antiquities to India. The countries had agreed to prevent illegal trafficking of cultural artefacts during Prime Minister Modi's state visit to US. The artifacts span a period from the 2nd to 19th centuries. Around 50 of them have religious significance. [17]

To combat looting, aerial surveillance - the effectiveness of which depends on the capability to perform systematic prospections - is increasingly being used. It is sometimes impractical, due to military activity, political restrictions, the vastness of the area, difficult environments, etc. Space technology could offer a suitable alternative, as in the case of Peru, where an Italian scientific mission directed by Nicola Masini [18] has since 2008 been using very high resolution satellite data to observe and monitor the phenomenon of huaqueros (archaeological looting) in some archaeological areas in southern and northern Peru. [19] [20] The U.S. Government Accountability Office issued a report describing some of the United States’ cultural property protection efforts. [21]

See also

Related Research Articles

Archaeological ethics refers to the moral issues raised through the study of the material past. It is a branch of the philosophy of archaeology. This article will touch on human remains, the preservation and laws protecting remains and cultural items, issues around the globe, as well as preservation and ethnoarchaeolog.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultural heritage</span> Physical artifact or intangible attribute of a society inherited from past generations

Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Repatriation (cultural property)</span> Return of stolen art to the original owners or heirs

Repatriation is the return of the cultural property, often referring to ancient or looted art, to their country of origin or former owners.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Archaeological looting in Iraq</span> Archaeological looting occurring in Iraq

Archaeological looting in Iraq took place since at least the late 19th century. The chaos following war provided the opportunity to pillage everything that was not nailed down. There were also attempts to protect the sites such as the period between April 9, 2003, when the staff vacated the Iraq Museum and April 15, 2003, when US forces arrived in sufficient numbers to "restore some semblance of order." Some 15,000 cultural artifacts disappeared in that time. Over the years approximately 14,800 were recovered from within and outside Iraq and taken under the protection of the Iraqi government.

Robert Emmanuel Hecht, Jr. was an American antiquities art dealer based in Paris.

American Council for Cultural Policy (ACCP) was a not-for-profit organization formed in 2002 by a group of politically influential antiquities dealers, collectors and lawyers in the United States, with its headquarters in New York and representatives in Washington D.C. The goal of the organization was described by Ashton Hawkins as "informing the public on arts issues." The organization is now defunct and its website (culturalpolicycouncil.org) has been removed from the web. Some of its members now actively take part in Cultural Policy Research Institute.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Looted art</span> Art that was taken illegally

Looted art has been a consequence of looting during war, natural disaster and riot for centuries. Looting of art, archaeology and other cultural property may be an opportunistic criminal act or may be a more organized case of unlawful or unethical pillage by the victor of a conflict. The term "looted art" reflects bias, and whether particular art has been taken legally or illegally is often the subject of conflicting laws and subjective interpretations of governments and people; use of the term "looted art" in reference to a particular art object implies that the art was taken illegally.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Djenné-Djenno</span> Historic site in Djenné Cercle, Mali

Djenné-Djenno is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the Niger River Valley in the country of Mali. Literally translated to "ancient Djenné", it is the original site of both Djenné and Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centers and the best-known archaeological sites in West Africa.

The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is a treaty that was adopted on 2 November 2001 by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The convention is intended to protect "all traces of human existence having a cultural, historical or archaeological character" which have been under water for over 100 years. This extends to the protection of shipwrecks, sunken cities, prehistoric art work, treasures that may be looted, sacrificial and burial sites, and old ports that cover the oceans' floors. The preservation of underwater cultural heritage is significant as it allows for the retelling of numerous historical events. As part of its duty to conduct scientific research and provide continuous education on the importance of underwater cultural heritage, UNESCO strives to maintain these sites for the enjoyment of current and future generations. The convention may provide a customary framework to help raise awareness and seek to combat the illegal looting and pirating occurring in waters worldwide. As an international body, member states of the convention agree to work towards the preservation of sunken cultural property within their jurisdiction and the high seas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quimbaya</span> Indigenous group in present-day Colombia

The Quimbaya (/kɪmbaɪa/) were a small indigenous group in present-day Colombia noted for their gold work characterized by technical accuracy and detailed designs. The majority of the gold work is made in tumbaga alloy, with 30% copper, which colours the pieces.

The Association for Research into Crimes against Art (ARCA) is a nongovernmental civil society organisation (CSO) that conducts scholarly research and training within the discipline of combatting cultural property crime. Established in 2009 with the aim of exploring the gaps in the international legal framework which addresses art and antiquities crimes. ARCA was founded by Dr. Noah Charney, an art and art crime historian, as well as a published author.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carabinieri Art Squad</span>

The Carabinieri Command for the Protection of Cultural Heritage, better known as the Carabinieri T.P.C., is the branch of the Italian Carabinieri responsible for combatting art and antiquities crimes and is viewed as an experienced and efficient task force.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">UNESCO 1970 Convention</span> UNESCO international treaty on cultural property

The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property is an international treaty to combat the illegal trade in cultural items. It was signed on 14 November 1970 and came into effect on 24 April 1972. As of February 2024, 143 states have ratified the convention.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quimbaya artifacts</span> Golden objects made by the Quimbaya culture, dated around 1000 CE

Quimbaya artifacts refer to a range of primarily ceramic and gold objects surviving from the Quimbaya civilisation, one of many pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia inhabiting the Middle Cauca River valley and southern Antioquian region of modern-day Colombia. The artifacts are believed to have originated during the Classical Quimbaya period 500 BC–600 AD.

The Cultural Heritage Center of the American Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs specializes in the protection and preservation of the world's ancient and historic monuments and archeological sites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geneva Freeport</span> Large art storage facility

Geneva Freeport is a warehouse complex in Geneva, Switzerland, for the storage of art and other valuables and collectibles. It is the oldest and largest freeport facility, and the one with the most artworks, with 40% of its collection being art with an estimated value of US$100 billion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Conservation and restoration of archaeological sites</span> Process in archaeology

The conservation and restoration of archaeological sites is the collaborative effort between archaeologists, conservators, and visitors to preserve an archaeological site, and if deemed appropriate, to restore it to its previous state. Considerations about aesthetic, historic, scientific, religious, symbolic, educational, economic, and ecological values all need to be assessed prior to deciding the methods of conservation or needs for restoration. The process of archaeology is essentially destructive, as excavation permanently changes the nature and context of the site and the associated information. Therefore, archaeologists and conservators have an ethical responsibility to care for and conserve the sites they put at risk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act</span> US federal law

The Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act is a United States Act of Congress that became federal law in 1983. The CCPIA implemented the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. It restricts the importation of some archaeological and ethnological materials into the United States from other State Parties to the Convention.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coffin of Nedjemankh</span> Ancient Egyptian coffin

The coffin of Nedjemankh is a gilded ancient Egyptian coffin from the late Ptolemaic Period. It once encased the mummy of Nedjemankh, a priest of the ram-god Heryshaf. The coffin was purchased by the New York City Metropolitan Museum of Art in July 2017 to be the centerpiece of an exhibition entitled "Nedjemankh and His Gilded Coffin." The Metropolitan Museum of Art repatriated Nedjemankh and his coffin to Egypt in 2019, before the scheduled closure of the exhibition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pennsylvania Declaration</span>

The Pennsylvania Declaration was a statement of ethics issued by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology on April 1, 1970. It affirmed that the Penn Museum would no longer acquire objects that lacked provenance or collection histories. The declaration aimed to distinguish the Penn Museum's collection practices from illegal antiquity trading while maintaining trust with countries where the university engaged in field research. This declaration marked the first time that a museum had taken formal steps to guarantee the ethical acquisition of materials and to deter looting and illicit antiquities trading. Froelich Rainey, director of the Penn Museum, presented the declaration at the meeting of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), in conjunction with the issue of its treaty known as the 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property.

References

  1. ↑ "Handbook of national regulations concerning the export of cultural property". unesdoc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2020-02-25.
  2. ↑ "FAQ – International Association of Dealers in Ancient Art". iadaa.org. Retrieved 2020-02-25.
  3. ↑ Illicit Antiquities, Trafficking Culture Encyclopedia.
  4. ↑ Amineddoleh, Leila (2013-10-01). "The Role of Museums in the Trade of Black Market Cultural Heritage Property". Rochester, NY. SSRN   2370699.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. ↑ Archaeological Institute of America
  6. ↑ BBC
  7. ↑ Yates, Donna; Brodie, Neil (2023). "The illicit trade in antiquities is not the world's third-largest illicit trade: a critical evaluation of a factoid". Antiquity. doi: 10.15184/aqy.2023.90 . ISSN   0003-598X.
  8. ↑ "CINOA - FIGHTING BOGUS INFORMATION ABOUT THE ART MARKET – 2021". www.cinoa.org. Retrieved 2023-05-24.
  9. ↑ Davis, Tess (September 2011). "Supply and demand: exposing the illicit trade in Cambodian antiquities through a study of Sotheby's auction house". Crime, Law and Social Change. 56 (2): 155–174. doi:10.1007/s10611-011-9321-6. S2CID   155025884. ProQuest   2695712043.
  10. ↑ "Islamic State Antiquities Trade Stretches To Europe, United States". International Business Times. 2014-11-17. Retrieved 2017-12-28.
  11. ↑ See Brodie, Neil; Renfrew, Colin (2005). "Looting and the world's archaeological heritage: the inadequate response". Annual Review of Anthropology. 34: 343–61. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120551.
  12. ↑ "Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage". UNESCO. 31 May 2023.
  13. ↑ "Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property". Unesco.org. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
  14. ↑ Brodie, Neil. "Persian Mummy" . Retrieved 21 August 2012.
  15. ↑ See e.g. J Paul Getty Museum Returns to Italy 1999, J Paul Getty Museum Returns to Italy (2005), and J. Paul Getty Museum Returns to Italy (2007), Trafficking Culture Encyclopedia.
  16. ↑ Brodie, Neil. "Euphronios (Sarpedon) Krater" . Retrieved 21 August 2012.
  17. ↑ "U.S. hands over 105 antiquities to India". The Hindu Bureau. The Hindu. 17 July 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  18. ↑ Cabitza, Mattia (2011-12-15). "Protecting Peru's ancient past". BBC News. Retrieved 2017-12-28.
  19. ↑ Lasaponara R., Masini N. R. 2010, Facing the archaeological looting in Peru by local spatial autocorrelation statistics of Very high resolution satellite imagery, Proceedings of ICSSA, The 2010 International Conference on Computational Science and its Application (Fukuoka-Japan, March 23 – 26, 2010), Springer, Berlin, pp. 261-269;
  20. ↑ Lasaponara, R.; Leucci, G.; Masini, N.; Persico, R. (2014). "Investigating archaeological looting using satellite images and georadar: the experience in Lambayeque in North Peru". Journal of Archaeological Science. 42: 216–230. Bibcode:2014JArSc..42..216L. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.032.
  21. ↑ "Cultural Property: Protection of Iraqi and Syrian Antiquities". 20 July 2017.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.