Applied Physics Laboratory

Last updated

Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory
JHU APL logo.svg
Motto Critical Contributions to Critical Challenges
Established1942
Research typeUnclassified / classified
Budget $2.09 billion [1]
Director Dr. Dave Van Wie
Staff 8,800 [2]
Location Laurel, Maryland, U.S.
Operating agency
 Johns Hopkins University
Website www.jhuapl.edu

The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (also known simply as Applied Physics Laboratory or APL) is a not-for-profit, United States Navy-sponsored, university-affiliated research center (UARC) in Howard County, Maryland, United States. [3]

Contents

APL is affiliated with Johns Hopkins University and employs more than 8,800 people as of 2025. [4] APL conducts research, engineering and analysis to address national security and scientific challenges faced by the United States and its allies. [3] The Laboratory brings together technical expertise, longstanding experience and specialized facilities to support rapid prototyping and long-term research and development. APL works across a range of domains, contributing to both operational systems and foundational science and technology. [5]

Aerial view of the main Johns Hopkins APL campus in Laurel, Maryland. APLAerialCampus-15-02012-1471-565x377.jpg
Aerial view of the main Johns Hopkins APL campus in Laurel, Maryland.

The Laboratory serves as a technical resource for every branch of the Department of Defense, [6] the Intelligence Community, [7] the Department of Homeland Security, [8] NASA, [9] and other government agencies, along with industry. APL has developed numerous systems and technologies in the areas of air and missile defense, [10] surface and undersea naval warfare, computer security, and space science and spacecraft construction. The Lab's work spans 13 mission areas, including applications from undersea systems and cyber operations to biological sciences and space exploration. Multidisciplinary teams integrate domain expertise and systems engineering to support a range of government missions. [5]

History

APL was established in 1942 during World War II under the Office of Scientific Research and Development's Section T as part of the government's effort to mobilize the nation's science and engineering expertise within its universities. Its founding director was Merle Anthony Tuve, who led Section T throughout the war. [11]

The original APL facility on Georgia Avenue in Silver Spring, Maryland, where the Laboratory opened during World War II and operated in the early Cold War era. 1942SilverSpringOffice.jpg
The original APL facility on Georgia Avenue in Silver Spring, Maryland, where the Laboratory opened during World War II and operated in the early Cold War era.

Section T was created on Aug. 17, 1940. According to the official history of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Scientists Against Time, APL was the name of Section T's main laboratory from 1942 onward, not the name of the organization overall. [12] Section T's Applied Physics Laboratory succeeded in developing the variable-time proximity fuze, which played a significant role in the Allied victory. [13] In response to the fuze's success, APL created the MK 57 gun in 1944. [14]

Pleased with APL's work, the Navy tasked the Laboratory with the mission to find a way to negate guided missile threats. From then on, APL became heavily involved in air and missile defense research. Expected to disband at the end of the war, APL instead became deeply engaged in the development of guided missile technology for the Navy. At the government’s request, the University continued to maintain the Laboratory as a public service. [15]

In the 1960s, APL developed an early autonomous robot known as "The Beast." Built as an experiment in cybernetic behavior, the robot could recharge itself, avoid obstacles and detect light sources, marking a milestone in mobile robotics research. 00-01964 APL 66196 001 The Beast.jpg
In the 1960s, APL developed an early autonomous robot known as “The Beast.” Built as an experiment in cybernetic behavior, the robot could recharge itself, avoid obstacles and detect light sources, marking a milestone in mobile robotics research.

APL was originally located in Silver Spring, Maryland in a used-car garage [16] at the Wolfe Building at 8621 Georgia Avenue. [17] [18] APL began moving to Laurel in 1954 with the construction of a $2 million building and a $700,000 wing expansion in 1956. The final staff transitioned to the new facility in 1975. Before moving to Laurel, APL also maintained the “Forest Grove Station,” north of Silver Spring on Georgia Avenue near today's Forest Glen Metro, which included a hypersonic wind tunnel. [19] The Forest Grove Station was vacated and torn down in 1963, and flight simulations were moved to Laurel. In the 1960s, APL built two early and pioneering autonomous robots, or “mobile automatons,” called Ferdinand and the Johns Hopkins Beast.

The Laboratory's name comes from its origins in World War II, but APL's major strengths are systems engineering and prototyping solutions to complex national security and scientific challenges with technical expertise, research and development, and analysis. More than 80% the staff are technical professionals, including nearly 1,500 Ph.Ds., and a majority of staff have degrees in engineering, math, computer science, physics, biology or similar fields. [4]

APL conducts programs in fundamental and applied research; exploratory and advanced development; test and evaluation; and systems engineering and integration. [5] In addition to its sponsored work, APL maintains a robust internal research and development program that provides seed funding for exploration of innovative ideas and concepts to address the nation’s future challenges. [20]

Wartime Contributions

During the 1950s and ‘60s, APL worked with the Navy on the Operation Bumblebee Program, which produced the RIM-2 Terrier, RIM-8 Talos, and RIM-24 Tartar surface-to-air missile systems. [21] The follow-on Typhon missile project, based on improved Talos and Tartar missiles, was successful but was cancelled in 1963 because of high costs. It was eventually developed into the Standard Missile and the now well-known Aegis combat system, based on an improved Terrier. [22]

APL led the development of the transformational system needed to demonstrate ballistic missile defense (BMD) from the sea. The resulting experiments proved that BMD technology could be integrated with a Navy weapon system to “hit a bullet with a bullet” in space from sea. [23]

In 1990, APL contributed to Operation Desert Storm, including work in the Gulf Crisis Room and other efforts. [24]

Notable Contributions

Campus

In 2021, APL opened an interdisciplinary research center, Building 201, with 263,000 square feet of space, a 200-person auditorium and more than 90,000 square feet of specialized laboratory space. In 2025, the building was renamed the Ralph D. Semmel Center for Innovation in honor of the Lab's eighth director, Ralph Semmel. 20241119-Building-201-Atrium.jpg
In 2021, APL opened an interdisciplinary research center, Building 201, with 263,000 square feet of space, a 200-person auditorium and more than 90,000 square feet of specialized laboratory space. In 2025, the building was renamed the Ralph D. Semmel Center for Innovation in honor of the Lab's eighth director, Ralph Semmel.

The modern Applied Physics Laboratory is located in Laurel, Maryland, and spans 461 acres with more than 30 buildings on site. Additional auxiliary campuses exist in the surrounding areas. The campus includes multiple innovation and collaboration spaces, as well as test facilities and more than 800 labs. APL also operates field offices across the nation that are closely aligned with the Department of Defense and other sponsor facilities. [5]

In 2021, APL opened an interdisciplinary research center, Building 201, with 263,000 square feet of space, a 200-person auditorium and more than 90,000 square feet of specialized laboratory space. The building also includes a four-story atrium, a STEM center and 100 huddle conference and auditorium breakout rooms. In 2025, the building was renamed the Ralph D. Semmel Center for Innovation in honor of APL’s eighth director, Ralph Semmel, who led the Laboratory from 2010 to 2025.

Education and internships

APL is also home to a Johns Hopkins Whiting School of Engineering (WSE) part-time graduate program in engineering and applied sciences for APL staff members and the public, called Engineering for Professionals (EP).[ citation needed ]

Students participating in APL's STEM Academy program, which offers hands-on science and engineering education for middle and high school students. HERO-STEM-STEM-Academy-3x2.jpg
Students participating in APL’s STEM Academy program, which offers hands-on science and engineering education for middle and high school students.

Up to 75% of EP students now come from outside APL. The faculty includes scientists and engineers from APL and WSE; from regional aerospace, engineering and information technology companies; and government agencies. EP offers master’s degrees in 25 areas, 14 of which are based at APL and chaired by APL’s technical professional staff members. Courses are taught at seven locations in the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area, including the APL Education Center. [33]

APL's STEM Academy includes several programs that provide a pathway to science, technology, engineering and math careers for students in grades 3–12. APL’s core programs are designed to be complementary and are grounded in an integrated model that ensures children learn about what being a STEM professional means.[ citation needed ]

Programs include Maryland MESA, an after-school offering for students in grades 3-12; the STEM Academy, an after-school course program for middle and high school students in grades 8-12; APL's Student Program to Inspire, Relate and Enrich (ASPIRE), which allows high school juniors and seniors to experience and explore STEM careers before college; and Pathways, APL’s college internship program. [34]

Research

APL operates across 13 mission areas, [4] encompassing disciplines such as undersea systems, space exploration, cybersecurity and biological sciences. Its teams apply systems engineering and technical expertise to support the development, testing and integration of technologies for national security and scientific research. [5] [35]

The Laboratory works in coordination with government sponsors and industry partners to align research and development priorities with mission needs. Its efforts focus on transitioning technologies into operational use, supporting both prototype development and broader implementation by external organizations. [36]

APL's portfolio includes longstanding areas of work such as air and missile defense and undersea warfare, as well as research addressing emerging domains and strategic priorities. These include autonomous systems, hypersonic systems, survivability and performance, artificial intelligence, assured autonomy, biomanufacturing and next-generation materials. [37]

National Security and Homeland Defense

APL plays a significant role in air and missile defense, hypersonics, strike and power projection, submarine security, antisubmarine warfare, strategic systems evaluation and cyber operations to support national security. Historical contributions include the radio proximity fuze and surface-to-air missiles. [38] [39]

Recent efforts have included the Aegis Weapon System [40] and Cooperative Engagement Capability. These efforts and others address global threats, enabling the military to detect, track and intercept threats such as ballistic missiles, cruise missiles and uncrewed aerial vehicles.

Advanced Manufacturing

APL’s work in advancing additive manufacturing focuses on materials science, precision engineering and rapid prototyping to support operational readiness, particularly in remote and extreme environments. [41]

APL has played a critical role in advancing a precise metal 3D-printing process to support ship maintenance and repair at sea. In 2023, when a Navy ship encountered a material failure in a key component, APL and the ship’s crew reverse-engineered the part to create a digital file and additively manufacture it in just five days — a fraction of the time it would take for traditional procurement. [41] [42] APL continues to explore advanced fabrication methods to enable maintenance, repair and mission resilience in contested or resource-limited settings.

Artificial Intelligence and Autonomy

APL conducts research in artificial intelligence, [6] machine learning and autonomous systems across domains such as defense, healthcare and space. Efforts include developing secure, reliable algorithms and platforms with an emphasis on human–machine teaming and system transparency. [43] APL also explores alternative computing paradigms, including quantum information science and neuromorphic architectures, to support advanced autonomy and communications.

Researchers from APL have helped accelerate the delivery of autonomous systems to warfighters through a program under the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering to rapidly integrate, test and assess low-cost uncrewed maritime systems. [44]

Space

Alan Stern celebrating the successful flyby of Pluto by New Horizons in 2015 in the APL Mission Operations Center. Alan Stern and New Horizons Team Celebrate Pluto Flyby.jpg
Alan Stern celebrating the successful flyby of Pluto by New Horizons in 2015 in the APL Mission Operations Center.

APL has built and operated many NASA spacecraft, including NEAR Shoemaker ; ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer); TIMED ; CONTOUR ; MESSENGER ; STEREO (A & B); Van Allen Probes ; New Horizons ; Parker Solar Probe ; the DART planetary-defense mission; and the IMAP heliophysics mission. APL has also provided major systems and instruments for other NASA efforts, including EZIE (Electrojet Zeeman Imaging Explorer), Lunar Vertex, and hardware/instruments for Europa Clipper. [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50]

APL’s space work began in the late 1950s/early 1960s with Navy-sponsored satellites such as the Transit (satellite) navigation system and later Geosat. In the early 1990s, NASA established the Discovery Program for competitively selected, cost-capped, principal-investigator-led planetary missions; APL built NEAR Shoemaker, the program’s first mission, and later developed MESSENGER, the first Mercury orbiter. [51] [52] [53] In November 2021, APL’s DART spacecraft launched and on 26 September 2022 deliberately impacted the asteroid moonlet Dimorphos, measurably shortening its orbital period around Didymos by about 33 minutes—the first demonstration of kinetic asteroid deflection. [54]

APL’s space work is managed by the Space Exploration Sector (SES). The sector manages spacecraft integration high bays and cleanrooms; environmental test facilities (“shake and bake”), such as thermal-vacuum chambers and vibration tables; and a Multi-Mission Operations Center that can operate several spacecraft concurrently from pre-launch through end-of-mission. [55] [56] [57] [58]

Artist's concept of NASA's Dragonfly rotorcraft-lander on Titan. Dragonfly Concept Art 2024.webp
Artist’s concept of NASA’s Dragonfly rotorcraft-lander on Titan.

Ongoing and upcoming missions. In 2019, NASA selected the APL-proposed Dragonfly rotorcraft as the fourth New Frontiers mission, a relocatable lander designed to fly to multiple sites on Titan to study prebiotic chemistry and potential habitability. [59] APL also manages NASA’s Parker Solar Probe , which on December 24, 2024, became the closest human-made object to the Sun, approaching to about 3.8 million miles (6.2 million kilometers) above the solar surface and matching that record again in 2025. [60] [61] In heliophysics, APL operates the Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP), Launched in 2025 to map the boundary of the heliosphere and study the acceleration of energetic particles. [62] [63]

The asteroid 132524 APL was named in honor of APL after a flyby by the New Horizons spacecraft. [64]

Health & Bioengineering

APL conducts research in neuroengineering, brain–computer interfaces, advanced prosthetics, public health digital twins, [65] and biological systems to drive innovative medical applications for the military and emergency situations. [66] These efforts include augmented reality-assisted medical care for emergency response and a brain organoid platform to study the effects of mild blast-induced traumatic brain injury. [67]

In 2014, APL led the DARPA-funded Revolutionizing Prosthetics program, culminating in the development of the Modular Prosthetic Limb — a fully artificial articulated arm and hand. [68] The device was successfully controlled by a bilateral shoulder-level amputee, using pattern recognition algorithms that tracked muscle contractions to move the prosthetic in conjunction with the amputee's body.

APL extended the technology in a 2016 demonstration in which a paralyzed man was able to “fist-bump” with then-President Barack Obama using signals sent from an implanted brain chip. [69] The limb also returned sensory feedback from the arm to the wearer's brain. In 2023, APL researchers developed a wearable thin-film thermoelectric cooler (TFTEC) — one of the world's smallest, most intense and fastest refrigeration devices. The TFTEC helps amputees perceive a sense of temperature with their phantom limbs. [70] The technology won an R&D 100 Award in 2023 [71] and in collaboration with Samsung, [72] APL researchers have extended the TFTEC technology to practical solid state refrigeration applications. [73]

In January 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic emerged, Johns Hopkins University launched the Coronavirus Resource Center — commonly known as the COVID-19 dashboard — which became the most widely used and trusted source for near-real-time global data on the pandemic. [74] The dashboard was initially developed by a team at the Whiting School of Engineering led by associate professor Lauren Gardner. [75] As the volume of incoming data quickly overwhelmed manual processing, the university turned to APL. Researchers at APL automated the data collection, aggregation and curation processes, and contributed essential analysis and visualizations. Their work was instrumental in maintaining the accuracy and usability of the dashboard, which served governments, media and the public throughout the pandemic. [74]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "2022 Annual Report" (PDF). Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Retrieved January 6, 2024.
  2. ↑ "About APL". Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. Retrieved September 4, 2024.
  3. 1 2 "Vice Chief of Naval Operations Visits Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory". United States Navy. Archived from the original on March 31, 2025.
  4. 1 2 3 "About Johns Hopkins APL". www.jhuapl.edu.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics. "2023 Annual Report". Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.
  6. 1 2 "Johns Hopkins Lands $389M DARPA R&D, Engineering Contract". www.executivegov.com. June 16, 2025.
  7. ↑ Smith, Kristen (March 4, 2025). "Johns Hopkins APL Says AI Can Improve Wargames Planning". www.executivegov.com.
  8. ↑ Ribeiro, Anna (August 22, 2024). "USCG, Johns Hopkins APL strengthen partnership to boost national defense and maritime security". Industrial Cyber. Archived from the original on November 15, 2024.
  9. ↑ Barry, Rachel (March 6, 2025). "How NASA is using virtual reality to prepare for science on Moon". Phys.org.
  10. ↑ "Van Wie to become next APL director". The Business Monthly. May 17, 2025.
  11. ↑ Stein, J. M. (September 15, 1975). "The effect of adrenaline and of alpha- and beta-adrenergic blocking agents on ATP concentration and on incorporation of 32Pi into ATP in rat fat cells". Biochemical Pharmacology. 24 (18): 1659–1662. doi:10.1016/0006-2952(75)90002-7. ISSN   0006-2952. PMID   12.
  12. ↑ Feiveson, H.A. (2018). Scientists Against Time: The Role of Scientists in World War II. United States: Archway Publishing.
  13. ↑ Collier, Cameron (August 1999). "Tiny Miracle—The Proximity Fuze". U.S. Naval Institute.
  14. ↑ "Vol. 34, No. 2 (2018) | Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory". www.jhuapl.edu.
  15. ↑ "Johns Hopkins Magazine -- April 2000". pages.jh.edu.
  16. ↑ Hagler, Michael L.; Loesch, James E.; Kozak, William E.; Grose, Ray W.; Connelly, Marc R. "The APL Campus: Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). www.jhuapl.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 11, 2006.
  17. ↑ McCoy, Jerry A; Society, Silver Spring Historical (November 2005). Historic Silver Spring. Arcadia. ISBN   978-0-7385-4188-4.
  18. ↑ Gibson, R. E. "Reflections on the Origin and Early History of the Applied Physics Laboratory" (PDF). jhuapl.edu.
  19. ↑ K., Hill,F. (February 27, 1948). "THE HYPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL AT THE APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY, THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY". DTIC. Archived from the original on May 7, 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics. "2023 Annual Report". Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.
  21. ↑ Blades, Todd (April 20, 2023). "Technical Report—The Bumblebee Can Fly". U.S. Naval Institute.
  22. ↑ "Armaments & Innovations - The Typhon that Never Was". U.S. Naval Institute. June 1, 2017.
  23. ↑ "Johns Hopkins University. Applied Physics Laboratory". history.aip.org.
  24. ↑ "Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory researches efficient forms of genocide". The Johns Hopkins News-Letter.
  25. ↑ "The First Satellite Navigation System | Time and Navigation". timeandnavigation.si.edu.
  26. ↑ "Test and Evaluation of Land-Mobile Missile Systems" (PDF). www.jhuapl.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016.
  27. ↑ Phillips, C. C. (1981). "AEGIS - Advanced Multi-Function Array Radar". Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest. 2: 246–249. Bibcode:1981JHATD...2..246P.
  28. ↑ "Vol. 34, No. 2 (2018) | Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory". www.jhuapl.edu.
  29. ↑ "Vol. 34, No. 3 (2018) | Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory". www.jhuapl.edu.
  30. ↑ Persons, D.; Mosher, L.; Hartka, T. (2000), "The NEAR and MESSENGER spacecraft - Two approaches to structure and propulsion design" , 41st Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference and Exhibit, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, doi:10.2514/6.2000-1406
  31. ↑ Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics. "2023 Annual Report". Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory.
  32. ↑ "Planetary Defense - DART - NASA Science". October 24, 2023.
  33. ↑ "Applied Physics Laboratory". Johns Hopkins Engineering Online.
  34. ↑ "STEM Academy | Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory". www.jhuapl.edu.
  35. ↑ "Johns Hopkins APL Rings in 80 Years | Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory". www.jhuapl.edu.
  36. ↑ Hoffman, Mary-Louise (June 26, 2023). "Johns Hopkins APL Secures $50M Air Force Architecture R&D Project – ExecutiveBiz". www.executivebiz.com.
  37. ↑ "Facility Focus: Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory". www.techbriefs.com. August 1, 2020.
  38. ↑ "Tiny Miracle—The Proximity Fuze". U.S. Naval Institute. January 12, 2023.
  39. ↑ Blades, Todd (April 20, 2023). "Technical Report—The Bumblebee Can Fly". U.S. Naval Institute.
  40. ↑ "The Politics of Developing the Aegis Combat System, Pt. 1 | Center for International Maritime Security". April 24, 2023.
  41. 1 2 Duran, Paloma (June 27, 2025). "Johns Hopkins APL and NAVSEA Strengthen U.S. Naval Manufacturing with Trusted Metal 3D Printing". 3D Printing Industry. Retrieved October 1, 2025.
  42. ↑ "Johns Hopkins APL, Navy Team Up To Advance Additive Manufacturing For Critical Mission". AM Chronicle. June 28, 2025.
  43. ↑ "Army, Johns Hopkins APL Use Human-AI Teaming Method for Medical Care in Combat – Executive Gov". www.executivegov.com. July 27, 2023.
  44. ↑ "Johns Hopkins APL Testing Software Platform for Navy USV Operating Systems". www.executivegov.com. September 25, 2024.
  45. ↑ "Space Missions". JHU APL. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  46. ↑ "Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)". JHU APL. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  47. ↑ "Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe (IMAP)". NASA Science. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  48. ↑ "EZIE". JHU APL. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  49. ↑ "Lunar Vertex". JHU APL. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  50. ↑ "Europa Clipper". JHU APL. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  51. ↑ "APL's Research Organization: Then and Now" (PDF). JHU APL Technical Digest. 2018. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  52. ↑ "Discovery Program". NASA Science. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  53. ↑ "NEAR Shoemaker". NASA Science. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  54. ↑ "NASA Confirms DART Mission Impact Changed Asteroid's Motion in Space". NASA. October 11, 2022. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  55. ↑ "Space Science and Engineering Facilities". JHU APL. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  56. ↑ "The Richard B. Kershner Space Integration and Test Facility" (PDF). JHU APL Technical Digest. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  57. ↑ "Dragonfly Team Debuts APL's Titan Environmental Test Chamber". JHU APL. November 20, 2023. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  58. ↑ "Mission Operations" (PDF). JHU APL Technical Digest. 1999. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  59. ↑ "NASA's Dragonfly Will Fly Around Titan Looking for Origins, Signs of Life". NASA. June 27, 2019. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  60. ↑ "NASA's Parker Solar Probe Makes History With Closest Pass to Sun". NASA Science. December 27, 2024. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  61. ↑ "Parker Solar Probe Completes 24th Close Approach to Sun". NASA Science. June 23, 2025. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  62. ↑ "NASA Targets September 2025 Launch for Heliophysics Missions". NASA Science. December 20, 2024. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  63. ↑ "International Team Readies IMAP Spacecraft for Testing". JHU APL. February 4, 2025. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  64. ↑ "New Horizons". NASA Science. Retrieved January 27, 2026.
  65. ↑ "Johns Hopkins APL model highlights testing's role in pandemic response". R&D World.
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  74. 1 2 bio, See full. "How Johns Hopkins' coronavirus dashboard came to be". CNET.
  75. ↑ Barone, Emily. "What Happens When the World's Most Popular COVID-19 Dashboard Can't Get Data?". TIME. Archived from the original on May 19, 2025.

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