The Atlantic blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) is a species of marlin endemic to the Atlantic Ocean. It is closely related to, and usually considered conspecific with, the Indo-Pacific blue marlin, then simply called blue marlin. Some authorities consider both species distinct.
The Atlantic blue marlin (hereafter, blue marlin) feeds on a wide variety of organisms near the surface. It uses its bill to stun, injure, or kill while knifing through a school of fish or other prey, then returns to eat the injured or stunned fish. Marlin is a popular game fish. The relatively high fat content of its meat makes it commercially valuable in certain markets. It is the national fish of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas and is featured on its coat of arms.
Blue marlin are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean. A bluewater fish that spends the majority of its life in the open sea far from land,[2] the blue marlin preys on a wide variety of marine organisms, mostly near the surface, often using its bill to stun or injure its prey. Females can grow up to four times the weight of males. The maximum published weight is 818kg (1,803lb) and length 5m (16.4ft).[3] Greater lengths have been claimed unofficially.[4]
They are sought after as a highly prized game fish by anglers and are taken by commercial fishermen, both as a directed catch and as bycatch in major industrial tuna fisheries. Blue marlin are currently considered a threatened species by the IUCN due to overfishing,[1] particularly in the international waters off the coast of Portugal where they migrate to breed in the June/July months.[citation needed] Some other historic English names for the blue marlin are Cuban black marlin, ocean gar, and ocean guard.[5]
Taxonomy and naming
The blue marlin is placed in the genus Makaira. This name is derived from the Greek word machaira, meaning "a short sword or bent dagger", and the Latin machaera, "sword".[6][7] The specific epithetnigricans is Latin for "becoming black".[8] The blue marlin is part of the billfish family Istiophoridae and is in the perch-like order Perciformes. In addition, it is in the suborder Xiphioidei and is a member of the subclass Neopterygii, which means "new wings". It is also in the class of Actinopterygii, which includes ray-finned fishes and spiny-rayed fishes, and the superclass Osteichthyes, which includes all of the bony fishes.[9][10]
The classification of the Atlantic blue marlin (M. nigricans) and the Indo-Pacific blue marlin (M. mazara) as separate species is under debate. Genetic data suggest, although the two groups are isolated from each other, they are both the same species, with the only genetic exchange occurring when Indo-Pacific blue marlin migrate to and contribute genes to the Atlantic population.[11] A separate study by V. P. Buonaccorsi, J. R. Mcdowell, and Graves indicated that both Indo-Pacific and Atlantic show "striking phylogeographic partitioning" of mitochondrial and microsatelliteloci.[12]
The biggest females are more than four times as heavy as the biggest males, which rarely exceed 160kg (350lb) in weight.[13] The longest females can reach a length of 5m (16ft) with the bill, from eye to tip, constituting about 20% of the total body length.
Body mass in the largest female specimens has been reported from 540 to 820kg (1,190 to 1,810lb), depending on the source (few large specimens are scientifically verified).[14] The largest blue marlin caught by IGFA angling rules is from Vitoria, Brazil, which weighed 1,402lb (636kg).;[15] fishermen often refer to individual marlins that reach or exceed 1,000 pounds as "granders".
Both sexes have 24 vertebrae, of which 11 are precaudal and 13 are caudal.[16]
The marlin has two dorsal fins and two anal fins. The fins are supported by bony spines known as rays. Its first dorsal fin has 39 to 43 rays from front to back.[16] Its second dorsal fin has six or seven rays.[16] Its first anal fin, which is similar in shape and size to the second dorsal fin, has 13 to 16 rays,[16] and the second anal fin has six or seven rays.[16] The pectoral fins, which have 19 to 22 rays,[16] are long and narrow and can be drawn in to the sides of the body. The pelvic fins are shorter than the pectorals, have a poorly developed membrane, and are depressible into ventral grooves. Its first anal fin, along with its pectoral and caudal fins, can be folded into grooves. This streamlines the fish and thereby reduces drag.
Blue marlin, like other billfish, can rapidly change color, an effect created by pigment-containing iridophores and light-reflecting skin cells.[17]
Most often, however, the body is blue-black on top with a silvery white underside. It has about 15 rows of pale, cobalt-colored stripes, each of which has round dots and/or thin bars, located on both sides of the fish.[16] The first dorsal fin membrane is dark blue or almost black and has no dots or marks. Other fins are normally brownish-black, sometimes with a hint of dark blue. The bases of the first and second anal fins have a hint of silvery white.
The body is covered with thick, bony, elongated scales that have one, two, or three posterior points, with one being the most common form.[16]
The bill is long and stout. Both the jaws and the palatines (the roof of the mouth) are covered with small, file-like teeth. The lateral line system is a group of neuromasts rooted in lateral line canals that can sense weak water motions and large changes in pressure.[18] It has the appearance of a net.[19] It is obvious in immature specimens but unclear in adults, becoming progressively embedded in the skin.[16] The anus is just in front of the origin of the first anal fin.
Range and migration
Blue marlin are found year-round in tropical oceanic waters of the Atlantic. The range expands into temperate waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres during the warmer months and contracts towards the Equator during colder months.[20] Warm currents such as the Gulf Stream in the western Atlantic have a major influence on their seasonal distribution.
Being the most tropic of all the billfishes, they spend a lot of time in the water column shifting from the top to a depth of 100 meters. They spend most nights near the surface and dive to deeper depths during the day. Limited from going any lower by the water temperature and oxygen levels. [21]
The blue marlin's latitudinal range extends from about 45°N to about 35°S. It is less abundant in the eastern Atlantic, where it mostly occurs off Africa between the latitudes of 25°N and 25°S. The largest numbers are usually found in waters warmer than 24°C (75°F), but blue marlin have been found at surface water temperatures as high as 30.5°C (86.9°F) and as low as 21.7°C (71.1°F).[22]
Tagging studies, using conventional "spaghetti" tags, and more recently pop-up satellite tags, have given researchers a glimpse into blue marlin migration patterns and habits. Recaptures of tagged fish have shown multiple movements between the Caribbean Islands and Venezuela and the Bahamas, as well as between the Caribbean Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands and West Africa, and interocean travel. Most notably, a blue marlin tagged off the coast of Delaware was recovered near the island of Mauritius off the southeast coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean – a voyage of 9,254 miles.[23] Several fish have been recaptured in the same general area where they were tagged, implying reverse migration after/over several years, but the data are insufficient to accurately determine seasonality.[24]
Atlantic blue marlin reach sexual maturity at the age of two to four years. Males reach sexual maturity at a weight of 35–44kg (77–97lb) and females at 47–61kg (104–134lb).[26] Blue marlin breed in late summer and fall. Females may spawn as many as four times in one season. They often release over seven million eggs at once, each about 1mm (0.039in) in diameter. Few reach sexual maturity. The planktonic young drift freely in the ocean's pelagic zone. Larvae inhabit the west central Atlantic off the Southern United States, Jamaica, The Bahamas, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico, and also the southwest Atlantic off Brazil.[13] The larvae may grow as much as 16mm (0.63in) in a day.[13] On their sides and dorsal surfaces, they are blue-black in color, while ventrally they are white. Both the caudal fin and the caudal peduncle (the narrow part of the fish's body to which the caudal or tail fin is attached) are clear. Two iridescent blue patches occur on the head, and some individuals have darker spots on their backs. In adolescents, the first dorsal fin is large and concave, gradually reducing in proportion to body size with continued growth.[5] Males may live for 18 years, and females up to 27.
Diet and feeding
The larvae feed upon a variety of zooplankton along with drifting fish eggs and other larvae. They progress to feeding on a wide range of fishes, particularly scombrids, such as mackerel and tuna, squid, and especially near oceanic islands and coral reefs, on juvenile inshore fish. Studies of stomach contents have found that smaller schooling scombrids such as frigate mackerel, bullet tuna, and skipjack tuna make up a substantial proportion of their diet. Squid and deep-sea fishes such as pomfret and snake mackerel are also important prey items in certain areas. Blue marlin have been recorded to take prey as large as white marlin, as well as yellowfin and bigeye tuna in the 100-lb range. Conversely, they are also capable of feeding on small but numerous prey such as filefish and snipefish.
Scientists and fishermen have long debated the extent to which blue marlin and other billfish use their elongated upper jaw in feeding. A 2007 Japanese study of stomach contents of fish captured in a commercial trolling fishery found that 130 undigested prey items obtained from 227 blue marlin had spearing, slashing, and other injuries that were judged to have been inflicted by the bill.[27]
Marlin has commercial value throughout the world, with landings totalling 3,064 metric tons in 2000.[13] It is particularly valued in Japan for sashimi.[13] Blue marlin meat is sometimes smoked and sold by roadside vendors.
Sport fishermen first encountered blue marlin in the Bahamas in the 1920s and early 1930s, when pioneering big-game fishermen such as Van Campen Heilner and S. Kip Farrington began exploring the waters offshore of Bimini and Cat Cay. Since then, blue marlin have been renowned as one of the world's greatest game fishes. The sportfishing pursuit of marlin and other billfish has developed into a multimillion dollar industry that includes hundreds of companies and thousands of jobs for boat operators, boat builders, marinas, dealerships, and fishing tackle manufacturers and dealers.
The most established sport fisheries for blue marlin are found along the eastern seaboard and the Gulf Coast of the United States, Bermuda, the Bahamas, and several other Caribbean islands (notably St Thomas and Puerto Rico). Recreational fishing for blue marlin also takes place in Hawaii, Brazil, Venezuela, and the Atlantic coast of Mexico, particularly the Yucatan peninsula. In the eastern Atlantic, blue marlin sport fisheries exist from the Algarve coast of Portugal in the north to Angola in the south and include the islands of the Azores, Canaries, Cape Verde, Madeira, and Ascension Island.
The International Game Fish Association all-tackle world record for blue marlin currently stands at 1,402lb 2 oz (636kg).[5] This fish was captured in Vitoria, Brazil.
Conservation
The blue marlin is under intense pressure from longline fishing. In the Caribbean region alone, Japanese and Cuban fishermen annually take over a thousand tons. All vessels within 200mi (320km) of the U.S. coastline are required to release any billfish caught. However, the survival rate of released fish is low because of damage during capture.[5]
Sport fishermen have been at the forefront of efforts to conserve blue marlin populations. The initial efforts to develop electronic tags for tracking highly migratory fish were carried out on marlin in Hawaii, in collaboration with anglers in the Hawaiian International Billfish Tournament.[23]
In culture
Ernest Hemingway with caught blue marlin
Both Zane Grey and Ernest Hemingway, who fished for blue marlin off the Florida Keys, The Bahamas, and most famously in Cuba, wrote extensively about their pursuit.
The blue marlin is featured prominently on the obverse of the 5 Bermudian dollar note.
In Hemingway's novella The Old Man and the Sea, a fisherman named Santiago battles a blue marlin for three days off the coast of Cuba.[2][30]
Marlins are fish from the family Istiophoridae, which includes about 10 species.
The mahi-mahi or common dolphinfish is a surface-dwelling ray-finned fish found in off-shore temperate, tropical, and subtropical waters worldwide. Also widely called dorado and dolphin, it is one of two members of the family Coryphaenidae, the other being the pompano dolphinfish. These fish are most commonly found in the waters around the Gulf of Mexico, Costa Rica, Hawaii and the Indian Ocean.
A dorsal fin is a fin located on the back of most marine and freshwater vertebrates within various taxa of the animal kingdom. Many species of animals possessing dorsal fins are not particularly closely related to each other, though through convergent evolution they have independently evolved external superficial fish-like body plans adapted to their marine environments, including most numerously fish, but also mammals such as cetaceans, and even extinct ancient marine reptiles such as various known species of ichthyosaurs. Most species have only one dorsal fin, but some have two or three.
The yellowfin tuna is a species of tuna found in pelagic waters of tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide.
The white marlin, also known as Atlantic white marlin, marlin, skilligalee, is a species of billfish that lives in the epipelagic zone of the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean. They are found between the latitudes of 45° N and 45° S in waters deeper than 100 m. Even though white marlin are found in bodies of water that are deeper than 100 m they tend to stay near the surface. White marlin have been found near banks, shoals, and canyons, but they are not limited to those locations. They prefer warm surface temperatures greater than 22 °C.
The billfish are a group of saltwater predatory fish characterised by prominent pointed bills (rostra), and by their large size; some are longer than 4 m (13 ft). Extant billfish include sailfish and marlin, which make up the family Istiophoridae; and swordfish, sole member of the family Xiphiidae. They are often apex predators which feed on a wide variety of smaller fish, crustaceans and cephalopods. These two families are sometimes classified as belonging to the order Istiophoriformes, a group which originated around 71 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous, with the two families diverging around 15 million years ago in the Late Miocene. However, they are also classified as being closely related to the mackerels and tuna within the suborder Scombroidei of the order Perciformes. However, the 5th edition of the Fishes of the World does recognise the Istiophoriformes as a valid order, albeit including the Sphyraenidae, the barracudas.
The black marlin is a species of marlin found in tropical and subtropical areas of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Reaching lengths of over 4.5 m (15 ft), it is one of the largest marlins and also one of the largest bony fish. Marlin are among the fastest fish, but speeds may be exaggerated in popular media, such as reports of 132 km/h (82 mph). A 2016 study estimated maximum swimming speeds from muscle contraction times, which in turn limit the tail-beat frequency; the study suggested a theoretical upper limit for the black marlin's burst speed of 36 kilometres per hour (22 mph). Black marlin are fished commercially and are also a highly prized game fish. Black marlins have been known to drag Maldivian fishing boats of the ancient times for very long distances until it got tired; and then it would take many hours for the fishermen to row or sail back home.
The striped marlin is a species of marlin found globally in tropical to temperate oceans not far from the surface. It is a desirable commercial and game fish, although conservation measures are in place to restrict its commercial landings. An epipelagic predator, it hunts during the day in the top 100 metres (330 ft) or so of the water column, often near the surface. One of its chief prey is sardines.
Marlin fishing or billfishing is offshore saltwater game fishing targeting several species of fast-swimming pelagic predatory fish with elongated rostrum collectively known as billfish, which include those from the families Istiophoridae and Xiphiidae (swordfish). It is considered by some fishermen to be a pinnacle of big-game fishing, due to the size, speed and power of the billfish and their relative elusiveness.
The blackfin tuna is a species of tuna in the family Scombridae. It is occasionally referred to as the Bermuda tuna, blackfinned albacore, or deep bodied tunny. They are the smallest tuna species in the genus Thunnus, generally growing to a maximum of 100 cm (39 in) in length and weighing 21 kg (46 lb).
Sphyraena barracuda, commonly known as the great barracuda, is a species of barracuda: large, predatory ray-finned fish found in subtropical oceans around the world.
The roundscale spearfish is an Istiophoridae species of marlin living in the epipelagic zone of the Atlantic Ocean. It has long been misidentified as white marlin but can be differentiated thanks to their scale shapes that gives its name. Not much is known about this species. It could reach a length of 160 cm and 21,5 kg and has no conservation status yet due to a lack of data.
The little tunny, also known as the false albacore, little tuna, bonita, or erroneously as the blue bonito, is a species of tuna in the family Scombridae. It can be found in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean and Black seas; in the western Atlantic, it ranges from Brazil to the New England states. The little tunny is a pelagic fish that can be found regularly in both offshore and inshore waters, and it is classified as a highly migratory species. The little tunny is best identified by the "worm-like" markings on its back and the dark spots appearing between its pectoral and ventral fins.
The bar jack, also known as the carbonero, red jack, blue-striped cavalla or passing jack, is a common species of inshore marine fish classified in the jack family, Carangidae. The bar jack is distributed through the western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey and Bermuda in the north to Venezuela and possibly Brazil in the south, with the largest population in the Gulf of Mexico and West Indies. The bar jack is most simply distinguished from similar jacks by its dark horizontal bar which runs along the back and down the caudal fin, often accompanied by an electric blue stripe immediately below it. Other more detailed differences include dentition and soft ray counts. The bar jack is a moderately large species, growing to a recorded maximum of 65 cm and a weight of 6.8 kg. The species inhabits clear shallow waters, often over coral reefs where it lives either solitarily or in large schools, taking various fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods as prey. Studies in Cuba indicate spawning occurs between March and August, with sexual maturity reached at 26 cm. It is a relatively popular sport fish and can be caught on light tackle with a variety of lures and baits. It is considered to be a good food fish, however many recorded ciguatera cases are attributed to the species, with most cases reported on the island of St. Thomas traced to this single species.
The Indo-Pacific blue marlin is a species of marlin belonging to the family Istiophoridae.
Haemulon vittatum, the boga, is an ocean-going species of grunt native to the western Atlantic Ocean. Bogas are also known as the snit in Jamaica, and bonnetmouth in the Bahamas. It was first described by Cuban zoologist Felipe Poey. This species used to be classified as Inermia vittata, but genetic data revealed that it belongs to the genus Haemulon.
Acanthurus tractus, the five-band surgeonfish, ocean surgeon, or ocean surgeonfish, is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Acanthuridae found in the western Atlantic Ocean, Florida, the Bahamas, the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Until recently, it was considered a synonym of Acanthurus bahianus, but its status as a separate species was resurrected in 2011.
Hyporthodus mystacinus, the misty grouper, black grouper, convict grouper, eightbar grouper or moustache grouper, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a grouper from the subfamily Epinephelinae which is part of the family Serranidae, which also includes the anthias and sea basses. It is primarily found in the Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico with populations present around the Galapagos Islands and Central American coastlines.
Of the twelve species of billfish, there are six species of Billfish in the Indian Ocean.
Argyrosomus hololepidotus, also known as the Madagascar meagre or southern meagre, is a species of marine ray-finned fish belonging to the family Sciaenidae, the drums and croakers. The species is endemic to Madagascar and the Indian Ocean.
References
1 2 3 Collette, B.; Acero, A.; Amorim, A.F.; Boustany, A.; Canales Ramirez, C.; Cardenas, G.; Carpenter, K.E.; de Oliveira Leite Jr.; N.; Di Natale, A.; Die, D.; Fox, W.; Fredou, F.L.; Graves, J.; Guzman-Mora, A.; Viera Hazin, F.H.; Hinton, M.; Juan Jorda, M.; Minte Vera, C.; Miyabe, N.; Montano Cruz, R.; Nelson, R.; Oxenford, H.; Restrepo, V.; Salas, E.; Schaefer, K.; Schratwieser, J.; Serra, R.; Sun, C.; Teixeira Lessa, R.P.; Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E.; Uozumi, Y.; Yanez, E. (2011). "Makaira nigricans". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2011: e.T170314A6743776. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T170314A6743776.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
1 2 Blue Marlin, National Geographic, archived from the original on 12 June 2007, retrieved 11 November 2008.
↑ Buonaccorsi, V. P.; Mcdowell, J. R. & Graves, J. E. (2001), "Reconciling patterns of inter-ocean molecular variance from four classes of molecular markers in blue marlin (Makaira nigricans)", Molecular Ecology, 10 (5): 1179–1196, doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01270.x, PMID11380876, S2CID33888783 .
↑ Shimose, T.; Yokawa, K.; Saito, H.; Tachihara, K. (2007). "Evidence for use of the bill by blue marlin, Makaira nigricans, during feeding". Ichthyological Research. 54 (4): 420–422. doi:10.1007/s10228-007-0419-x. S2CID7169929.
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