Avian metapneumovirus

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Avian metapneumovirus
Virus classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Negarnaviricota
Class: Monjiviricetes
Order: Mononegavirales
Family: Pneumoviridae
Genus: Metapneumovirus
Species:
Avian metapneumovirus
Synonyms [1]

Turkey rhinotracheitis virus

Avian metapneumovirus (aMPV), also known as turkey rhinotracheitis or swollen head syndrome, [2] causes a variety of disease syndromes in birds, depending on the bird species and virus type (A, B, C or D). [3]

Contents

First detected in 1978 in South Africa, the virus has spread all over the world except Australia. [4] It is mostly found in turkeys, pheasants, Muscovy ducks and guinea fowls. Turkeys are the most susceptible species for all subtypes. It is presumed that other species are immune.

Etiology

AMPV belongs to the genus Metapneumovirus alongside human metapneumovirus, both of which belong to the family Pneumoviridae. [5]

The spherical formed particles are 100 to 500 nm in diameter and the filamentous formed are 100 nm in width. Most of the particles are not highly pleomorphic but rounded. [2]

The virus is divided into four subtypes from A to D, [6] which can be classified by the attachment of glycoprotein (G-protein). [2]

Subtypes A, B and D are more closely related in Europe than to the subtype C. By comparison type C has a higher amino acid sequence homology to human MPV. [2] [6] HMPV and AMPV-C share up to 80% of the amino acid identity. [6] The genomes are arranged " from the 3′ to 5′ ends encoding nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M),fusion protein (F), […]" [6] second Matrix (M2) [3] "small hydrophobic protein (SH), attachment protein (G) and the large polymerase protein (L)" [6] (3′–N‐P‐M‐F‐ M2‐SH‐G‐L‐5′‐ [7] ). Other viruses from the genus Metapneumovirus include the same genome arrangement. [8] In comparison AMPV-C shares only 60-70% of the amino acid identity with AMPV-A and AMPV-B. [3]

The glycoproteins F and G, which are forming spikes on the surface of the virus, interact with the protein layer of the glycoprotein M on the internal surface. The detailed molecular reaction of them is not well investigated. [7]

Reliant to strain, temperature and time of exposure, AMPV is capable of resisting a pH from 3 to 9. The virus is inactivated at 56 °C (133 °F) after 30 minutes, and is destroyed by commonly used disinfectants. [2]

Signs and symptoms

Even though younger birds appear to be more susceptible, [4] the infection affects all ages. [2] [3] For fattening turkeys it dominantly concerns the upper respiratory tract while for laying hens it is a mild respiratory infection which leads to a dipping production of eggs, which can decrease up to 70%. [4]

Other symptoms includes “serous, watery nasal and ocular discharge; frothy eyes; and conjunctivitis. At later stages, signs include mucopurulent, turbid nasal discharge; plugged nostrils; swollen infraorbital sinuses; and snicking, sneezing, coughing," [4] "or tracheal rales. These respiratory signs are accompanied by depression, anorexia, and ruffled feathers” [4]

The incubation needs 3 to 5 days [2] and morbidity can reach 100% but depending on the age, constitution of the flock and secondary infections the mortality accounts 1 to 30% by turkeys. [4]

So clear identifying signs have not been identified in chickens or pheasants. Infection with the virus is associated with swollen head syndrome, with swelling peri- and infraorbital sinuses, foamy eyes, nasal discharge. In general, less than 40% of the flock becomes infected, and the mortality is around 2%. [4] Young chickens become depressed or crowd together under heating lamps. [2] Flocks become quiet after infection. [2]

If there is no secondary infection and the flock is in good condition, birds can recover within 7–10 days. [4]

Diagnosis

AMPV can be clearly diagnosed by laboratory test to identify viral genomes, antigens or antibodies. There are various tests: [2]

For virus isolation, [7] samples of the upper respiratory tract must be taken in an early stage of the disease, before the sixth day after infection.

Transmission

AMPV is highly contagious mainly through oral transmission in direct contact or in contact with contaminated material. The spreading depends on the flock density, the standard of hygiene and the biosecurity within the flocks. [3] The virus is replicated in the reproductive and also respiratory system. [3] The virus is mostly transmitted through aerosol and therefore affects the ciliated epithelial cells of the respiratory system but also macrophages can be affected and play a minor role in transmitting the virus. [4]

The virus can be spread after only a few days after the infection which suggests that this virus has no latency period. [4]

Because of the human MPV, found in 2001, it is not defined as zoonotic. [2] Even though there is a great homology between hMPV and aMPV-C, no infections of the aMPV-C in humans have been noticed. [6] Also the hMPV does not replicate in turkeys. [6]

So far there is not close relationship noticed between hMPV and aMPV-A and aMPV-B. [9]

Prevention

To protect the flocks live vaccines, including attenuated as well as inactivated, are used in Europe to control subtypes A and B. [3] Three methods are used to treat the flock: [2]

For inactivated vaccines, the animal should be primed with live vaccines 4–6 weeks prior to treatment with the inactivated vaccine. Inactivated vaccines are administered via injection. [2]

In general the vaccination program depends on the field situation. [3]

To reduce the seriousness of the disease, good flock management is necessary. [2] High biosecurity means that there is limited and controlled access to the flock, separate footwear and equipment for each building, and footbaths in the building entrance. For a hygienic environment, the organic material should be removed, both in gangway and drinking water but also disinfectants play a major role. [2]

History

The type D virus was detected 1986 by B. Giraud in France. [2]

Related Research Articles

<i>Influenza A virus</i> Species of virus

Influenza A virus (IAV) is a pathogen that causes the flu in birds and some mammals, including humans. It is an RNA virus whose subtypes have been isolated from wild birds. Occasionally, it is transmitted from wild to domestic birds, and this may cause severe disease, outbreaks, or human influenza pandemics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Avian influenza</span> Influenza caused by viruses adapted to birds

Avian influenza, also known as avian flu, is a bird flu caused by the influenza A virus, which can infect people. It is similar to other types of animal flu in that it is caused by a virus strain that has adapted to a specific host. The type with the greatest risk is highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI).

<i>Human metapneumovirus</i> Species of virus

Human metapneumovirus is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the family Pneumoviridae and is closely related to the Avian metapneumovirus (AMPV) subgroup C. It was isolated for the first time in 2001 in the Netherlands by using the RAP-PCR technique for identification of unknown viruses growing in cultured cells. It is the second most common cause after respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) of lower respiratory infection in young children.

<i>Orthomyxoviridae</i> Family of RNA viruses including the influenza viruses

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of negative-sense RNA viruses. It includes seven genera: Alphainfluenzavirus, Betainfluenzavirus, Gammainfluenzavirus, Deltainfluenzavirus, Isavirus, Thogotovirus, and Quaranjavirus. The first four genera contain viruses that cause influenza in birds and mammals, including humans. Isaviruses infect salmon; the thogotoviruses are arboviruses, infecting vertebrates and invertebrates. The Quaranjaviruses are also arboviruses, infecting vertebrates (birds) and invertebrates (arthropods).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Influenza A virus subtype H5N1</span> Subtype of influenza A virus

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 (A/H5N1) is a subtype of the influenza A virus which can cause illness in humans and many other species. A bird-adapted strain of H5N1, called HPAI A(H5N1) for highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of subtype H5N1, is the highly pathogenic causative agent of H5N1 flu, commonly known as avian influenza. It is enzootic in many bird populations, especially in Southeast Asia. One strain of HPAI A(H5N1) is spreading globally after first appearing in Asia. It is epizootic and panzootic, killing tens of millions of birds and spurring the culling of hundreds of millions of others to stem its spread. Many references to "bird flu" and H5N1 in the popular media refer to this strain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swine influenza</span> Infection caused by influenza viruses endemic to pigs

Swine influenza is an infection caused by any of several types of swine influenza viruses. Swine influenza virus (SIV) or swine-origin influenza virus (S-OIV) refers to any strain of the influenza family of viruses that is endemic in pigs. As of 2009, identified SIV strains include influenza C and the subtypes of influenza A known as H1N1, H1N2, H2N1, H3N1, H3N2, and H2N3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Infectious bursal disease</span> Viral disease of poultry

Infectious bursal disease (IBD), also known as Gumboro disease, infectious bursitis, and infectious avian nephrosis, is a highly contagious disease of young chickens and turkeys caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), characterized by immunosuppression and mortality generally at 3 to 6 weeks of age. The disease was first discovered in Gumboro, Delaware in 1962. It is economically important to the poultry industry worldwide due to increased susceptibility to other diseases and negative interference with effective vaccination. In recent years, very virulent strains of IBDV (vvIBDV), causing severe mortality in chicken, have emerged in Europe, Latin America, South-East Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Infection is via the oro-fecal route, with affected birds excreting high levels of the virus for approximately 2 weeks after infection. The disease is easily spread from infected chickens to healthy chickens through food, water, and physical contact.

Avian infectious bronchitis (IB) is an acute and highly contagious respiratory disease of chickens. The disease is caused by avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a coronavirus, and characterized by respiratory signs including gasping, coughing, sneezing, tracheal rales, and nasal discharge. In young chickens, severe respiratory distress may occur. In layers, respiratory distress, nephritis, decrease in egg production, and loss of internal and external egg quality are reported.

Avian coronavirus is a species of virus from the genus Gammacoronavirus that infects birds; since 2018, all gammacoronaviruses which infect birds have been classified as this single species. The strain of avian coronavirus previously known as infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is the only coronavirus that infects chickens. It causes avian infectious bronchitis, a highly infectious disease that affects the respiratory tract, gut, kidney and reproductive system. IBV affects the performance of both meat-producing and egg-producing chickens and is responsible for substantial economic loss within the poultry industry. The strain of avian coronavirus previously classified as Turkey coronavirus causes gastrointestinal disease in turkeys.

Aviadenoviruses are adenoviruses that affect birds—particularly chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys and pheasants. There are 15 species in this genus. Viruses in this genus cause specific disease syndromes such as Quail Bronchitis (QB), Egg Drop Syndrome (EDS), Haemorrhagic Enteritis (HE), Pheasant Marble Spleen Disease (MSD), and Inclusion Body Hepatitis (IBH). Avian adenoviruses have a worldwide distribution and it is common to find multiple species on a single farm. The most common serogroups are serogroup 1, 2 and 3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transmission and infection of H5N1</span> Spread of an influenza virus

Transmission and infection of H5N1 from infected avian sources to humans has been a concern since the first documented case of human infection in 1997, due to the global spread of H5N1 that constitutes a pandemic threat.

<i>Influenza C virus</i> Genus of viruses in the family Orthomyxoviridae

Influenza C virus is the only species in the genus Gammainfluenzavirus, in the virus family Orthomyxoviridae, which like other influenza viruses, causes influenza.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Influenza A virus subtype H6N2</span> Avian influenza virus

H6N2 is an avian influenza virus with two forms: one has a low and the other a high pathogenicity. It can cause a serious problem for poultry, and also infects ducks as well. H6N2 subtype is considered to be a non-pathogenic chicken virus, the host still unknown, but could strain from feral animals, and/or aquatic bird reservoirs. H6N2 along with H6N6 are viruses that are found to replicate in mice without preadaptation, and some have acquired the ability to bind to human-like receptors. Genetic markers for H6N2 include 22-amino acid stalk deletion in neuraminidase (NA) protein gene, increased N-glycosylation, and a D144 mutation of the Haemagglutinin (HA) protein gene. Transmission of avian influenza viruses from wild aquatic birds to domestic birds usually cause subclinical infections, and occasionally, respiratory disease and drops in egg production. Some histological features presented in chicken infected with H6N2 are fibrinous yolk peritonitis, salpingitis, oophoritis, nephritis, along with swollen kidneys as well.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">H5N1 genetic structure</span>

H5N1 genetic structure is the molecular structure of the H5N1 virus's RNA.

<i>Mycoplasma gallisepticum</i> Species of bacterium

Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is a bacterium belonging to the class Mollicutes and the family Mycoplasmataceae. It is the causative agent of chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chickens and infectious sinusitis in turkeys, chickens, game birds, pigeons, and passerine birds of all ages.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Influenza</span> Infectious disease, often just "the flu"

Influenza, commonly known as "the flu", is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These symptoms begin from one to four days after exposure to the virus and last for about 2–8 days. Diarrhea and vomiting can occur, particularly in children. Influenza may progress to pneumonia, which can be caused by the virus or by a subsequent bacterial infection. Other complications of infection include acute respiratory distress syndrome, meningitis, encephalitis, and worsening of pre-existing health problems such as asthma and cardiovascular disease.

Avian orthoreovirus, also known as avian reovirus, is an orthoreovirus from the Reoviridae family. Infection causes arthritis and tenosynovitis in poultry. It can also cause respiratory disease.

<i>Pneumoviridae</i> Family of viruses

Pneumoviridae is a family of negative-strand RNA viruses in the order Mononegavirales. Humans, cattle, and rodents serve as natural hosts. Respiratory tract infections are associated with member viruses such as human respiratory syncytial virus. There are five species in the family which are divided between the genera Metapneumovirus and Orthopneumovirus. The family used to be considered as a sub-family of Paramyxoviridae, but has been reclassified as of 2016.

<i>Avian metaavulavirus 2</i> Species of virus

Avian metaavulavirus 2, formerly Avian paramyxovirus 2, is a species of virus belonging to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Metaavulavirus. The virus is a negative strand RNA virus containing a monopartite genome. Avian metaavulavirus 2 is one of nine species belonging to the genus Metaavulavirus. The most common serotype of Avulavirinae is serotype 1, the cause of Newcastle disease (ND). Avian metaavulavirus 2 has been known to cause disease, specifically mild respiratory infections in domestic poultry, including turkeys and chickens, and has many economic effects on egg production and poultry industries. The virus was first isolated from a strain in Yucaipa, California in 1956. Since then, other isolates of the virus have been isolated worldwide.

<i>Influenza D virus</i> Species of virus

Influenza D virus is a species in the virus genus Deltainfluenzavirus, in the family Orthomyxoviridae, that causes influenza.

References

  1. ↑ Fauquet, C.; Mayo, M.A.; Maniloff, J.; Desselberger, U.; Ball, L.A., eds. (2005). Virus taxonomy: Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (PDF). Elsevier Academic Press. p. 666 – via ITCV.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Md Zulfekar Ali (2017). Avian Pneumovirus (APV) (Report). doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.22102.65602.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Lee, Eun ho; Song, Min-Suk; Shin, Jin-Young; Lee, Young-Min; Kim, Chul-Joong; Lee, Young Sik; Kim, Hyunggee; Choi, Young Ki (2007-09-01). "Genetic characterization of avian metapneumovirus subtype C isolated from pheasants in a live bird market". Virus Research. 128 (1): 18–25. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2007.03.029. ISSN   0168-1702. PMID   17485129.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 "Overview of Avian Metapneumovirus - Poultry". Veterinary Manual. Retrieved 2019-12-02.
  5. ↑ "ICTV Taxonomy history: Metapneumovirus". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Archived from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 de Graaf, Miranda; Osterhaus, Albert D. M. E.; Fouchier, Ron A. M.; Holmes, Edward C. (2008). "Evolutionary dynamics of human and avian metapneumoviruses". Journal of General Virology. 89 (12): 2933–2942. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.2008/006957-0 . ISSN   0022-1317. PMID   19008378.
  7. 1 2 3 Broor, Shobha; Bharaj, Preeti (2007). "Avian and Human Metapneumovirus". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1102 (1): 66–85. Bibcode:2007NYASA1102...66B. doi:10.1196/annals.1408.005. ISSN   1749-6632. PMID   17470912. S2CID   36160131.
  8. ↑ Sugiyama, Miki; Ito, Hiroshi; Hata, Yusuke; Ono, Eriko; Ito, Toshihiro (2010-07-31). "Complete nucleotide sequences of avian metapneumovirus subtype B genome". Virus Genes. 41 (3): 389–395. doi:10.1007/s11262-010-0518-z. ISSN   0920-8569. PMID   20676749. S2CID   22090963.
  9. ↑ Njenga, M Kariuki; Lwamba, Humphrey M; Seal, Bruce S (2003-02-01). "Metapneumoviruses in birds and humans". Virus Research. 91 (2): 163–169. doi:10.1016/S0168-1702(02)00256-3. ISSN   0168-1702. PMID   12573494.
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