Berkhamsted Castle is a Normanmotte-and-baileycastle in Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire. The castle was built to obtain control of a key route between London and the Midlands during the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century. Robert of Mortain, William the Conqueror's half brother, was probably responsible for managing its construction, after which he became the castle's owner. The castle was surrounded by protective earthworks and a deer park for hunting. The castle became a new administrative centre of the former Anglo-Saxon settlement of Berkhamsted. Subsequent kings granted the castle to their chancellors. The castle was substantially expanded in the mid-12th century, probably by Thomas Becket.
The castle was besieged in 1216 during the civil war between King John and rebellious barons, who were supported by France. It was captured by Prince Louis, the future Louis VIII, who attacked it with siege engines for twenty days, forcing the garrison to surrender. After being retaken by royal forces the subsequent year, it was given to Richard, Earl of Cornwall, beginning a long association with the Earldom of Cornwall and the later duchy. Richard redeveloped the castle as a palatial residence, and made it the centre of the earldom's administration. King Edward III further developed the castle in the 14th century and gave it to his son, Edward, the Black Prince, who expanded the hunting grounds. The castle was also used to hold royal prisoners, including King John II of France and rival claimants to the English throne.
In the late 15th century, the castle became increasingly unfashionable and fell into decline. By the mid-16th century, it was in ruins and unsuitable for royal use. Stone was taken from the castle to build houses and other buildings in the town. The castle was almost destroyed during the construction of the London and Birmingham Railway in the 1830s. As a result, it became the first building in Britain to receive statutory protection from Parliament. In 1930, the castle passed from the Duchy of Cornwall to the government's control. It is maintained as a tourist attraction by English Heritage.
Plan of the castle: A – earthworks, possibly for French siege engines; B – motte and keep; C – inner bailey; D – Richard, Earl of Cornwall's tower; E – 19th century keeper's house; F – outer bailey; G – south gate
The castle was located slightly away from the main road, to give additional space for the earthworks involved, and was positioned as to benefit from natural springs running down from under the hill.[1] It had a motte and bailey design, with a 40 foot (12m) high motte, and a bailey around 500 foot (150m) by 300 foot (91m), enclosing 0.6 acres (0.24ha) acres. A double bank and ditch ran around the whole castle, with both sets of ditches filled with water.[5] In total, the wider earthworks occupy around 11 acres (4.5ha).[6] A fossarius – a specialised ditch digger – was recorded as being employed maintained at the castle in 1086.[7]Radiocarbon dating of organic remains from within the castle's motte indicates a post 1066 construction date.[8][9]
A large deer park, owned by the Crown, was established around the castle to provide hunting grounds.[10] The castle was carefully positioned next to the park, which was overlooked by the motte.[11] A vineyard was also maintained alongside the castle.[12] The old Anglo-Saxon manorial centre was moved to the site, and as a result the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Berkhamsted may have shifted from the area now called Northchurch along Akeman Street to be closer to the castle; several mills, essential for grinding flour, were present there in 1086.[13]
Robert's son, William rebelled against Henry I and the castle was confiscated.[14] Henry granted Berkhamsted to his chancellor, Ranulf.[15] In 1123, however, when Ranulf was travelling to the castle with Henry, the chancellor rode over the nearby hill, became overly exhilarated at the view ahead of him and fell off his horse, dying from his injuries.[16]
The castle was subsequently given by Henry II to Thomas Becket when he became chancellor in 1155.[17] Becket extended the castle to accommodate his large household, but fell from favour in 1164 and the castle was confiscated by the king.[18] Henry II liked Berkhamsted and subsequently used it himself extensively.[19] By the mid-12th century, the castle had been rebuilt in stone, probably by Becket, with a shell keep and an outer stone wall; the bailey was divided in two by a wall to form an inner and an outer bailey.[20] A gatehouse led down into the town, meeting with Castle Street.[21] Henry II also officially recognised the surrounding settlement of Berkhamsted as a town in 1156.[1]
Political tensions in England began to rise, however, and a potential conflict between King John and an alliance of rebel barons opposed to his rule began to look likely. In early 1215, King John installed a trusted German mercenary called Ranulph in charge of Berkhamsted Castle and reviewed the defensive arrangements there that April.[23]Civil war broke out later that same year. Initially, the rebels were hampered by a lack of equipment – in particular, siege engines – but in May 1216 the future Louis VIII crossed over the English Channel joining the rebel cause and being proclaimed king in London, bringing with him heavy siege equipment.[24]
King John died in October, and in December Louis besieged Berkhamsted Castle.[25] The prince deployed his siege engines, probably trebuchets, and attacked the castle repeatedly for twenty days, throwing what chroniclers termed innumerable "damnable stones" at the defenders.[26] During the 13th century, a set of earthworks were built around the outside of the walls, which may have been the firing platforms for these trebuchets.[27][nb 1] Having put up a strong defence, the garrison was allowed to surrender and to leave with their weapons and armour.[29] When the forces loyal to the young Henry III defeated the rebels the following year, the castle was returned to royal hands.[19]
1218–1461
Castle motte
In subsequent years, Berkhamsted then became closely associated with the Earls and Dukes of Cornwall.[30][31] Henry III's brother, Richard, became the Earl of Cornwall and inherited the castle from his mother Isabella, and it became a permanent part of the earldom.[32] Berkhamsted was Richard's favourite castle, partially because it was conveniently close to London.[33] Richard had an impressive, three-storey tower built onto the property in 1254, and restored much of the rest of the castle; the chroniclers of nearby Dunstable complained that his building works required so many carts to carry the timber that local trade in other goods was badly affected.[34] The castle was used for the central administration of the earldom and Richard's nine stewards would submit their annual financial reports there.[35] Meanwhile, the town of Berkhamsted itself became rich as a result of the growing wool trade.[36] Richard died at the castle in 1272, and it passed to his son Edmund.[19]
The castle passed on through Edward I, who found the castle in an apparently poor condition, and his second wife, Margaret, to Edward II.[37] Edward II gave it to his royal favourite, Piers Gaveston, whom he made Earl of Cornwall.[19] Gaveston was married there in 1307, with Edward in attendance.[38] Edward II and Gaveston fell from power in 1327 and John, Edward's second son, took possession as the new Earl of Cornwall.[6]
When John died, Edward III reclaimed Berkhamsted Castle; a survey showed it to be in need of substantial repairs.[6] Edward had not yet improved Windsor Castle, so used Berkhamsted as his main property, investing considerable sums in renovating it.[19] His son, Edward, the Black Prince, was created Duke of Cornwall and also made extensive use of the castle, which formed part of the new duchy.[22] The Black Prince took advantage of the aftermath of the Black Death to extend the castle's park by 65 acres (26ha), including some woodland pasture stretching over the Chilterns, eventually producing a park covering 991 acres (401ha).[39] The castle was used to hold John II of France after he was taken prisoner at the Battle of Poitiers.[19] When the Black Prince fell ill following his campaigning in France, he retired to Berkhamsted and died there in 1376.[40]
Richard II inherited Berkhamsted Castle in 1377; initially the use of it was given to his favourite, Robert de Vere and, after de Vere's fall from power and exile in 1388, to John Holland.[41]Henry IV lived in the castle after he deposed Richard in 1400, and he used the property to detain rival applicants to the throne.[42] During this period Geoffrey Chaucer, later famous for his Canterbury Tales, oversaw renovation work on the castle in his role as a clerk.[43] Both Henry V and Henry VI owned the castle, the latter making use of it until his overthrow in 1461.[44]
1462–1900
View from the motte, looking into the inner bailey
Berkhamsted was confiscated by Edward IV when he came to power during Wars of the Roses.[44] In the late 15th century, the castle was occupied by his mother, Cecily Neville, the Duchess of York.[42] By now the castle had become increasingly unfashionable, however, and was abandoned after her death in 1495.[21] By the time that antiquarianJohn Leland visited in the mid-16th century, it was in "much ruine" and was unsuitable for royal use.[45]
In 1580, the estate, including the ruins and the park, was leased by Elizabeth I to Sir Edward Carey, for the nominal rent of one red rose each year.[46] Stone from the castle was used to build Berkhamsted Place, a local school and other buildings in the late 16th century.[47][48] The castle's park, which had reached 1,252 acres (507ha) in size by 1627, was broken up in the next two decades, shrinking to only 376 acres (152ha).[49] The English Civil War of the 1640s largely passed Berkhamsted by, with the castle apparently playing no part in the conflict.[50]
In 1761 the wider estate and the castle were separated, the former being leased to the Duke of Bridgewater, while the latter remained in the direct control of the Duchy of Cornwall.[51] In 1863, the surrounding estates and park were sold off altogether by the duchy to Earl Brownlow; Brownlow also agreed to rent the castle from the duchy for a nominal rent.[52]
In the 1830s, plans were drawn up to build the new London and Birmingham Railway.[53] From an engineering perspective, the ideal route for the railway ran through the site of the castle, but concerns over the need to protect ancient monuments and buildings had been growing for several years, and the local Bridgwater estate were also keen to protect the local view from their buildings.[54] The castle was ultimately specifically protected in the 1833 act that sanctioned the railway, forcing the track to take a route across the valley floor. Berkhamsted was the first building in Britain to receive statutory protection from development in this way.[53][55] Nonetheless, the route still required the track to pass through the outer fortifications of the castle, a major engineering operation which was carried out in 1834, destroying the castle gatehouse in the process.[56]
Between around 1841 and 1897 a soup kitchen operated within the castle ruins. It was set up as a charity by Charlotte Catherine Anne, Countess of Bridgewater to feed destitute agricultural workers during the winter months.[57] Contemporary accounts in the Bucks Herald describe the distribution of soup and bread to hundreds of poor people from a house in the castle grounds, thought to be the 19th-century keeper's house which stands in the outer ward.[58][59]
20th – 21st centuries
Ruins of the external walls, keeper's house, castle motte in background
In 1924, a strip of land around the periphery of the castle ruins was purchased from Lord Brownlow's estate by William Cooper and Nephews, a local agricultural chemical factory, for use as grazing land for sheep.[60]
Following the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913, the British Government was empowered to issue preservation orders to protect ancient monuments. The Office of Works acquired control of Berkhamsted Castle from the Duchy of Cornwall on 24th December 1929. Renovation works were carried out on the castle ruins 1930-31, using a workforce made up of men who had become unemployed during the Great Depression. Overgrown trees were felled and the moats cleared. During the clearance work, the stave of a 13th-century crossbow was dug up in the eastern part of the inner moat. The crossbow is thought to be a remnant of the siege of 1216. In 1976, it was put on display in the Royal Armouries collection at the Tower of London until the display closed in 1995, and the crossbow is now held in the British Museum collection in London.[61][62] The inner ditch was subsequently drained of water in the 1950s.[32]
In the summer of 1966, to mark the 900th anniversary of the Norman Conquest, a festive pageant was held in the castle grounds. The eight-day event featured a dramatic presentation of the history of Berkhamsted and attracted large numbers of spectators.[65] A planned event to mark the 950th anniversary in 2016 was cancelled when English Heritage refused permission due to concerns about damage to castle fabric and health and safety.[66]
Today, Berkhamsted Castle is protected by law as an ancient monument.[67] The ruins are operated as a tourist attraction by English Heritage, who inherited the guardianship from the former Ministry of Works. Ownership of the land is still held by the Duchy of Cornwall, with two peripheral sections formerly held by Coopers Works now divided between the Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport and the Berkhamsted Castle Trust.[68][69]
Historian Isobel Thompson considers Berkhamsted Castle to be "one of the best surviving motte and bailey castles" in England.[21]Sam Willis has recalled visiting the castle as a child and remembers especially running up and down the motte.[70]
The Berkhamsted Castle site entirely staffed by local volunteers. It is open daily and visitors can enter free of charge.[71]
Castle Occupants
In the 11th century, Robert of Mortain was associated with Berkhamsted Castle. Then in 1086, Randulph, Lord Chancellor, received permission from the Crown to construct another wooden fort on the castle site. In 1155, Thomas à Becket took over the castle as Lord Chancellor and converted the wooden fort into a stone fortress. Between 1191 and King Richard I’s death, Queen Berengaria of Navarre occupied the castle. Queen Isabella of Angoulême also occupied the castle until the siege in 1204. King Henry III granted the castle to Richard Earl of Cornwall in 1227, who then used it as his primary residence and administrative centre. Queen Margaret of France occupied the Berkhamsted Castle in 1291. Edward, the Black Prince, took over the castle in 1337 and later imprisoned King John II there in 1356. In 1399, the castle was passed down from Henry V to his wife Margaret of Anjou. Finally, between 1469 and her death in 1495, Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, occupied the castle. [72]
Castle Construction
The Berkhamsted motte mound is around 14 m high (45.9 feet) and 55 metres (180.4 feet) in diameter and comprises a motte in the northeast corner of an oblong bailey. The motte stands on a shell keep of about 18 metres wide (59 feet), and the bailey occupies around 1.3 hectares (13,000 sq m).
The original castle was rebuilt in stone and extended over many years, yet the position remains consistent with the initial build. The castle boasted two complete moats in its prime, and visitors approached the castle from today’s Castle Street. They entered through a low wooden bridge across the River Bulbourne and a second drawbridge led to the central Gateway. [72]
Visiting the Castle
Berkhamsted Castle does not provide parking on site, but visitors can park in public parking areas located near the railway station or the town centre at a standard fee. If using on-street parking on White Hill or nearby streets, visitors must keep in mind the residents. The castle site can be accessed for free during reasonable daylight hours of the day. During summer months, the castle ruins are open daily from 10 am-6 pm, while in winter months, the ruins are open from 10 am-4 pm. The castle ruins are closed on Christmas day and New Year's day. The castle can be located at White Hill, Berkhamsted, Hertfordshire, HP4 1LJ. The castle bailey and its surroundings offer a great location to picnic or explore the long history of the castle ruins. Visitors can take a scenic walk around the remains of the once-mighty rampart and climb the stairs of the bailey to enjoy the view from the medieval stone walls.[73]
Kenilworth Castle is a castle in the town of Kenilworth in Warwickshire, England, managed by English Heritage; much of it is still in ruins. The castle was founded during the Norman conquest of England; with development through to the Tudor period. It has been described by the architectural historian Anthony Emery as "the finest surviving example of a semi-royal palace of the later middle ages, significant for its scale, form and quality of workmanship".
Berkhamsted is a historic market town in Hertfordshire, England, in the Bulbourne valley, 26 miles (42 km) north-west of London. The town is a civil parish with a town council within the borough of Dacorum which is based in the neighbouring large new town of Hemel Hempstead. Berkhamsted, along with the adjoining village of Northchurch, is encircled by countryside, much of it in the Chiltern Hills which is an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB).
A keep is a type of fortified tower built within castles during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars have debated the scope of the word keep, but usually consider it to refer to large towers in castles that were fortified residences, used as a refuge of last resort should the rest of the castle fall to an adversary. The first keeps were made of timber and formed a key part of the motte-and-bailey castles that emerged in Normandy and Anjou during the 10th century; the design spread to England, Portugal, south Italy and Sicily. As a result of the Norman invasion of 1066, use spread into Wales during the second half of the 11th century and into Ireland in the 1170s. The Anglo-Normans and French rulers began to build stone keeps during the 10th and 11th centuries, including Norman keeps, with a square or rectangular design, and circular shell keeps. Stone keeps carried considerable political as well as military importance and could take a decade or more to build.
Clun Castle is a medieval ruined castle in Clun, Shropshire, England. Clun Castle was established by the Norman lord Robert de Say after the Norman invasion of England and went on to become an important Marcher lord castle in the 12th century, with an extensive castle-guard system. Owned for many years by the Fitzalan family, Clun played a key part in protecting the region from Welsh attack until it was gradually abandoned as a property in favour of the more luxurious Arundel Castle. The Fitzalans converted Clun Castle into a hunting lodge in the 14th century, complete with pleasure gardens, but by the 16th century the castle was largely ruined. Slighted in 1646 after the English Civil War, Clun remained in poor condition until renovation work in the 1890s.
Cambridge Castle, locally also known as Castle Mound, is located in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, England. Originally built after the Norman conquest to control the strategically important route to the north of England, it played a role in the conflicts of the Anarchy, the First and Second Barons' Wars. Hugely expanded by Edward I, the castle then fell rapidly into disuse in the late medieval era, its stonework recycled for building purposes in the surrounding colleges. Cambridge Castle was refortified during the English Civil War but once again fell into disuse, used primarily as the county gaol. The castle gaol was finally demolished in 1842, with a new prison built in the castle bailey. This prison was demolished in 1932, replaced with the modern Shire Hall, and only the castle motte and limited earthworks still stand. The site is open to the public daily and offers views over the historic buildings of the city.
Restormel Castle lies by the River Fowey near Lostwithiel in Cornwall, England, UK. It is one of the four chief Norman castles of Cornwall, the others being Launceston, Tintagel and Trematon. The castle is notable for its perfectly circular design. Once a luxurious residence of the Earl of Cornwall, the castle was all but ruined by the 16th century. It was briefly reoccupied and fought over during the English Civil War, but was subsequently abandoned. It is now in the care of English Heritage and open to the public.
The River Bulbourne is a small river in Dacorum, Hertfordshire, England. The word bourne derives from the Anglo-Saxon word for a stream. It is an unnavigable tributary of the River Gade, which flows into the River Colne, which in turn is a tributary of the River Thames. The Bulbourne is an example of a chalk stream, which is a watercourse that flows from chalk-fed groundwater. Chalk streams are a very rare habitat globally, with more than 85% of all the 210 chalk streams in the world are found in England. The river is reduced in size, due to human activity, the main one being the building of the London to Birmingham Grand Union Canal through the narrow valley which takes most of the river's water.
Brough Castle is a ruined castle in the village of Brough, Cumbria, England. The castle was built by William Rufus around 1092 within the old Roman fort of Verterae to protect a key route through the Pennine Mountains. The initial motte and bailey castle was attacked and destroyed by the Scots in 1174 during the Great Revolt against Henry II. Rebuilt after the war, a square keep was constructed and the rest of the castle converted to stone.
Bowes Castle is a medieval castle in the village of Bowes in County Durham, England. Built within the perimeter of the former Roman fort of Lavatrae, on the Roman road that is now the A66, the early timber castle on the site was replaced by a more substantial stone structure between 1170 and 1174 on the orders of Henry II. A planned village was built alongside the castle. Bowes Castle withstood Scottish attack during the Great Revolt of 1173–74 but was successfully looted by rebels in 1322. The castle went into decline and was largely dismantled after the English Civil War. The ruins are now owned by English Heritage and managed as a tourist attraction. There is free admission during daylight hours.
Launceston Castle is located in the town of Launceston, Cornwall, England. It was probably built by Robert the Count of Mortain after 1068, and initially comprised an earthwork and timber castle with a large motte in one corner. Launceston Castle formed the administrative centre of the new earldom of Cornwall, with a large community packed within the walls of its bailey. It was rebuilt in stone in the 12th century and then substantially redeveloped by Richard of Cornwall after 1227, including a high tower to enable visitors to view his surrounding lands. When Richard's son, Edmund, inherited the castle, he moved the earldom's administration to Lostwithiel, triggering the castle's decline. By 1337, the castle was increasingly ruinous and used primarily as a gaol and to host judicial assizes.
Longtown Castle, also termed Ewias Lacey Castle in early accounts, is a ruined Norman motte-and-bailey fortification in Longtown, Herefordshire. It was established in the 11th century by Walter de Lacy, reusing former Roman earthworks. The castle was then rebuilt in stone by Gilbert de Lacy after 1148, who also established the adjacent town to help pay for the work. By the 14th century, Longtown Castle had fallen into decline. Despite being pressed back into use during the Owain Glyndŵr rising in 1403, it fell into ruin. In the 21st century the castle is maintained by English Heritage and operated as a tourist attraction.
Eye Castle is a motte and bailey medieval castle with a prominent Victorian addition in the town of Eye, Suffolk. Built shortly after the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the castle was sacked and largely destroyed in 1265. Sir Edward Kerrison built a stone house on the motte in 1844: the house later decayed into ruin, becoming known as Kerrison's Folly in subsequent years.
A shell keep is a style of medieval fortification, best described as a stone structure circling the top of a motte.
Warkworth Castle is a ruined medieval castle in Warkworth in the English county of Northumberland. The village and castle occupy a loop of the River Coquet, less than a mile from England's north-east coast. When the castle was founded is uncertain: traditionally its construction has been ascribed to Prince Henry of Scotland, Earl of Northumbria, in the mid-12th century, but it may have been built by King Henry II of England when he took control of England's northern counties. Warkworth Castle was first documented in a charter of 1157–1164 when Henry II granted it to Roger fitz Richard. The timber castle was considered "feeble", and was left undefended when the Scots invaded in 1173.
Southampton Castle was located in the town of Southampton in Hampshire, England. Constructed after the Norman conquest of England, it was located in the north-west corner of the town overlooking the River Test, initially as a wooden motte and bailey design. By the late 12th century the royal castle had been largely converted to stone, playing an important part in the wine trade conducted through the Southampton docks. By the end of the 13th century the castle was in decline, but the threat of French raids in the 1370s led Richard II to undertake extensive rebuilding. The result was a powerfully defended castle, one of the first in England to be equipped with cannon. The castle declined again in the 16th century and was sold off to property speculators in 1618. After being used for various purposes, including the construction of a Gothic mansion in the early 19th century, the site was flattened and largely redeveloped. Only a few elements of the castle still remain visible in Southampton.
Fotheringhay Castle, also known as Fotheringay Castle, was a High Middle Age Norman Motte-and-bailey castle in the village of Fotheringhay 3+1⁄2 miles (5.6 km) to the north of the market town of Oundle, Northamptonshire, England. It was probably founded around 1100 by Simon de Senlis, Earl of Northampton. In 1113, possession passed to Prince David of Scotland when he married Simon's widow. The castle then descended with the Scottish princes until the early 13th century, when it was confiscated by King John of England.
Stogursey Castle is a medieval castle in Somerset, England. Most of the site is in ruins, but there is a thatched gatehouse used for holiday rental by the Landmark Trust.
Montacute Castle was a castle built on a hill overlooking the village of Montacute, Somerset, England.
173, High Street, Berkhamsted, is a medieval building in Hertfordshire, England. It is considered to be the oldest extant jettied timber framed building in Great Britain, dated by dendrochronology of structural timbers to between 1277 and 1297. At the time of the building's construction, the town of Berkhamsted was a relatively large, flourishing wool trading market town that benefited from having an important royal castle.
References
Notes
↑ Academic opinions vary on the interpretation of the 13th century earthworks around the castle. Historian Nigel Pounds is certain on the basis of their unusual shape that they were the French firing platforms; Adrian Pettifer is uncertain; John Goodall suggests that they were instead defensive works built later by Richard, Earl of Cornwall, arguing that it would have been unlikely that the earthworks would have been left intact outside the castle after the war.[28]
↑ "Berkhamsted Castle Siege". www.berkhamstedcastle.org.uk. Berkhamsted Castle Trust. Archived from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
↑ "Countess of Bridgewater's soup kitchen". Bucks Herald. 6 February 1875. p.5.
↑ "Richard Mildmay Foot". www.berkhamstedcastle.org.uk. Berkhamsted Castle Trust. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
↑ "London Statues". www.berkhamstedcastle.org.uk. Berkhamsted Castle Trust. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
↑ "900th Anniversary Pageant". www.berkhamstedcastle.org.uk. Berkhamsted Castle Trust. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
Liddiard, Robert (2005). Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500. Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press. ISBN9780954557522.
Mackenzie, James Dixon (1896). Castles of England: Their Story and Structure. Vol.1. New York, US: Macmillan. OCLC12964492.
Pettifer, Adrian (1995). English Castles: a Guide by Counties. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN9780851156002.
Pounds, Nigel J. G. (1994). The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: A Social and Political History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-45099-7.
Prince, Hugh C. (2008). Parks in Hertfordshire Since 1500. Hatfield, UK: Hertfordshire Publications. ISBN9780954218997.
Purton, Peter Fraser (2009). A History of the Early Medieval Siege, c.450–1220. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN9781843834489.
Richards, Jeffrey (1995). "The Role of the Railways". In Wheeler, Michael (ed.). Ruskin and Environment: The Storm Cloud of the Nineteenth Century. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. pp.123–143. ISBN9780719043772.
Rowe, Anne (2007). "The Distribution of Parks in Hertfordshire: Landscape, Lordship and Woodland". In Liddiard, Robert (ed.). The Medieval Park: New Perspectives. Macclesfield, UK: Windgather Press. pp.128–145. ISBN978-1-9051-1916-5.
Sherwood, Jennifer (2008). "Influences on the Growth of Medieval and Early Modern Berkhamsted". In Wheeler, Michael (ed.). A County of Small Towns: the Development of Hertfordshire's Urban Landscape to 1800. Hatfield, UK: Hertfordshire Publications. pp.224–248. ISBN9781905313440.
Williamson, Tom (2010). The Origins of Hertfordshire. Hatfield, UK: Hertfordshire Publications. ISBN9781905313952.
Wolstenholme, John (1883). Two Lectures on the History and Antiquities of Berkhamsted (2nded.). London, UK: Nichols and Sons. OCLC693003587.
Further reading
Remfry, Paul Martin (2009). Berkhamsted Castle and the Families of the Counts of Mortain, the Earls of Cornwall and the Crown. Worcester, UK: SCS Publishing. ISBN9781899376483.
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