Biblical authority

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Reading the Bible, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, 1755 Jean-Baptiste Greuze - Reading the bible.jpg
Reading the Bible, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, 1755

In Christianity, the term biblical authority refers to two complementary ideas:

Contents

The case for biblical authority stems from the claim that God has revealed himself in written form through human authors and that the information contained in canonical books is not of human origin. [1] It entails, but is not exhausted by, questions raised by biblical inerrancy, biblical infallibility, biblical interpretation, biblical criticism, and biblical law in Christianity.

While there are many factions within Christianity as a religion, they commonly define the Bible as the word of authority as a direct communication of the word of God. Different Christian denominations have differing interpretations of the meaning of the words within the Bible and therefore diverge in religious practice. [2]

In modern Christian research, academics have challenged certain beliefs about biblical authority and the Bible as an exact replica of the word of God. Significant perspectives suggest that the standards of accuracy most likely differ between ancient times and now, which must be considered when interpreting the Bible. [3]

Nature and significance

Biblical authority refers to the notion that the Bible is authoritative and useful in guiding matters of Christian practice because it represents the word of God. [4] The nature of biblical authority is that it involves critique of the Bible and sources of biblical literature in order to determine the accuracy and authority of its information in regards to communicating the word of God. [5] It examines biblical literature in order to guide practice. Biblical authority can be determined through the processes of critical interpretation, known as exegesis, as well as hermeneutics, which refers to the science of interpretive principles. [4] Differing interpretations of biblical authority by factions of Christianity has led to divergent practices. [4]

Modern biblical research suggests that sources of biblical authority differ between the Old and New Testaments. This is based on the notion that the Old Testament of the Bible was collated over time via several authors, and thus may not be an objective source of authority. [5] Additionally, research explores the idea that the New Testament of the Bible is a recording of oral teachings of Jesus, which means that there is a degree of flexibility in the interpretation of biblical literature. [5] Individual denominations of Christianity have differing takes on these theories of biblical authority.

Biblical inerrancy is a common feature across interpretations of biblical authority in Christianity. It is a modern principle that the Bible is the final authority on interpretations of the word of God, and it consists of no errors or faults. [6]

Old Testament

The Old Testament of the Bible is believed to reveal the existence of divine power through human authors in Christian religion. [4] The Old Testament is considered canon, which is utilised in Christianity to represent a standard of faith. It was first made use of in reference to the authoritative nature of sacred scripture. [5] Authority in the Old Testament is sourced from the combination of doctrines, commandments and stories, as these are seen as the direct words of God. [7] Further research suggests that traditionally, authority from the Old Testament is understood through authors of the books, who are figures such as Moses. [2] This research proposes that biblical authority in the Old Testament is dictated by the authority figure who authored the book, as opposed to the direct word of God. [3] This is because God is seen as the "divine author of Holy Scripture". [4] Biblical scholars have suggested that the Old Testament was written over a three-stage development of canonisation and was not completed until the sixth century AD, [3] which differs from other accounts stating that the Old Testament was written at different times between around 1200–165 BC. [8] This understanding of authorship in ancient Israel contributes to the interpretation of authority as it indicates that the final words of the written Old Testament may not be literally taken from the authority figure whose words are recorded in the book. [4]

Judaism

Judaism is based on aspects of the Old Testament of the Bible, with the Torah deriving from books of the Law. [9] The writings of the Old Testament preserved Jewish tradition over events of persecution, capture and diaspora. [9] In Judaism, biblical authority is derived from the Old Testament and relevant books. There are varying levels of literalness based on differing factions of Judaism. The Reform Jewish faction of Judaism follow the belief that the morals and interpretations dictated by the Bible and other sacred Jewish texts may be disregarded as they are irrelevant in modern times. [10] The Orthodox Judaism faction believe that the principles should be maintained as they are relevant in modern times. [10] A concept within Judaism that bears relevance to biblical authority in Christianity is Rabbinic authority, meaning that the word of God is the final authority and that the word of Rabbis is derivative of this. [11]

New Testament

The New Testament of the Bible is believed to be made up of accounts communicated orally by Jesus Christ. [4] These accounts were narratively scribed by authors who were believed to have the divine right to communicate these words. According to the English Standard Version (2016), in the second book of Timothy (3:16) "All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness". [12]

According to the doctrine, the Holy Spirit means that God is able to enact authority through Jesus Christ and his disciples, which is consistent with the source of biblical authority from the Old Testament. [5] A core component of biblical authority is biblical inerrancy. This concept outlines that there are no errors in the scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. [7] Current theological research offers an alternative perspective that the nature of the oral transmission of stories from Jesus Christ to the New Testament means that there must be room for flexibility within the principle of biblical inerrancy. [6] According to university professor Andrew C. Witt's review of biblical research, there is error in the ancient recording of the oral word that differs from the standards of modern print practices. [3] The New Testament was reviewed and edited for centuries prior to canonisation. Words changed over time to diverge from the direct oral teachings of Jesus Christ. [13] Conservative evangelicals and fundamentalists reject such divergence and errancy, appealing to providential preservation and God's truthfulness.

Criticism

There are several criticisms of current sources of biblical authority within scholarly research. The first criticism is put forth by Paul J. Achtemeier in 1983. [14] This criticism outlines two potential issues within the Bible. The first is intrinsic, meaning that there are actual errors in science, history and morality within the Bible. Achtemeier provides the example of Jesus' birthdate as an instance of an inaccuracy of history within the Bible. The second issue is extrinsic, in that the Bible can be used to hold one type of Christianity over others. Achtemeier says that these issues in combination cause issues in deriving biblical authority from Christian literature. [14]

Alternatively, in their 2013 review, Walton and Sandy raised the argument that due to the oral nature of Jesus’ stories in the New Testament, it cannot be assumed that every word should be taken literally. [3] This perspective critiques the principle of biblical inerrancy within the concept of biblical authority. [3]

A further perspective of the Bible as a sacred text that holds authority is that there is little understanding of the process of canonisation. There is a large time gap between when original works in the Bible appear to have been written and the original relics that have been found of the writing, [15] giving time for change between the original written word and what was canonised within the Bible. In some instances, the reported time over which a certain work was edited and changed, whether inadvertently or intentionally, was around one thousand years. [15] There are several ways in which the original words of the Bible could have been changed in the years of canonisation. One of which is aural conditioning, meaning that similar sounds may have been misconstrued for other sounds, ultimately altering words that were recorded. [15] There was the potential for visual confusion and mistakes, as graphics written in certain language versions of the Bible have similar characters that could be mistaken. [15] Visual problems might include:

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, a debate over biblical authority arose between Jack B. Rogers and Donald K. McKim, on the one hand, and John D. Woodbridge, on the other. Rogers and McKim, in their 1979 book, The Authority and Interpretation of the Bible: An Historical Approach, [16] advanced the view that the Bible has authority over social endeavours (issuing imperatives for human conduct, for church organization, and for articles of faith) but isn't necessarily reliable in its reportage of historical events and scientific facts. The belief that scripture is "inerrant" in matters of history and science, argued Rogers and McKim, constituted a 19th-century innovation. Woodbridge challenged this thesis in his 1982 book Biblical Authority: A Critique of the Rogers/McKim Proposal, [17] arguing that for each of those categories, scripture has authority and is without error. Moreover, Woodbridge portrays this particular view of biblical authority as the normative, orthodox Christian position throughout the history of Christianity. [18]

Practical interpretations

Protestantism

Interpretations of biblical authority differ between Christian denominations. In several Protestant factions (namely the Lutheran and the Calvinist traditions), the doctrine of sola scriptura ("by scripture alone") guides biblical authority. [2] Sola scriptura outlines that the Bible is the sole source of authority. [4] Protestantism has split into several factions since separating from the Roman Catholic Church. Each faction has unique interpretations of the Bible, but utilise the same biblical authority standard of sola scriptura. [2] The term is attributed most often to Martin Luther, who was a leader during the Protestant Reformation, creating the Church that originally separated from the existing Catholic Church. [2] Martin Luther's ideas of sola scriptura and biblical authority descend from St Augustine, who believed in biblical truth and guided critics in understanding and overcoming discrepancies within the sacred text. [4]

Sola scriptura may be contrasted with prima scriptura (taught by the Methodist tradition), [19] which holds that, besides canonical scripture, there can be other guides for what a believer should believe and how they should live.

Catholicism

While maintaining the same notion that the Bible has final authority on the word of God, Catholicism utilises the additional concept of magisterium, meaning that the Roman Catholic Church has teaching authority utilising the words of the Bible. [20] This means that priests and religious officials have religious authority in interpreting the word of God and informing their followers of this interpretation. [20]

See also

Related Research Articles

The New Testament (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events relating to first-century Christianity. The New Testament's background, the first division of the Christian Bible, is called the Old Testament, which is based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible; together they are regarded as sacred scripture by Christians.

Sola scriptura is a Christian theological doctrine held by most Protestant Christian denominations, in particular the Lutheran and Reformed traditions, that posits the Bible as the sole infallible source of authority for Christian faith and practice. The Catholic Church considers it heterodox and generally the Orthodox churches consider it to be contrary to the phronema of the Church.

Biblical inerrancy is the belief that the Bible "is without error or fault in all its teaching"; or, at least, that "Scripture in the original manuscripts does not affirm anything that is contrary to fact". Some equate inerrancy with biblical infallibility; others do not.

The five solae of the Protestant Reformation are a foundational set of Christian theological principles held by theologians and clergy to be central to the doctrines of justification and salvation as taught by the Calvinism and Lutheranism branches of Protestantism, as well as in some branches of Pentecostalism. Each sola represents a key belief in these Protestant traditions that is distinct from the theological doctrine of the Catholic Church, although they were not assembled as a theological unit until the 20th century. The Reformers are known to have only clearly stated two of the five solae. Even today there are differences as to what constitutes the solae, how many there are, and how to interpret them to reflect the Reformers' beliefs.

Liberal Christianity, also known as liberal theology and historically as Christian Modernism, is a movement that interprets Christian teaching by taking into consideration modern knowledge, science and ethics. It emphasizes the importance of reason and experience over doctrinal authority. Liberal Christians view their theology as an alternative to both atheistic rationalism and theologies based on traditional interpretations of external authority, such as the Bible or sacred tradition.

Biblical infallibility is the belief that what the Bible says regarding matters of faith and Christian practice is wholly useful and true. It is the "belief that the Bible is completely trustworthy as a guide to salvation and the life of faith and will not fail to accomplish its purpose."

The infallibility of the Church is the belief that the Holy Spirit preserves the Christian Church from errors that would contradict its essential doctrines. It is related to, but not the same as, indefectibility, that is, "she remains and will remain the Institution of Salvation, founded by Christ, until the end of the world." The doctrine of infallibility is premised on the authority Jesus granted to the apostles to "bind and loose" and in particular the promises to Peter in regard to papal infallibility.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sacred tradition</span> Foundation of Christian doctrinal and spiritual authorities

Sacred tradition, also called holy tradition or apostolic tradition, is a theological term used in Christian theology. According to this theological position, sacred tradition is the foundation of the doctrinal and spiritual authority of Christianity and of the Bible. Thus, the Bible must be interpreted within the context of sacred tradition and within the community of the denomination. The denominations that ascribe to this position are the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Assyrian churches.

In Christian communities, Bible study is the study of the Bible by people as a personal religious or spiritual practice. In many Christian traditions, Bible study, coupled with Christian prayer, is known as doing devotions or devotional acts. Many Christian churches schedule time to engage in Bible study collectively. The origin of Bible study groups has its origin in early Christianity, when Church Fathers such as Origen and Jerome taught the Bible extensively to disciple Christians. In Christianity, Bible study has the purpose of "be[ing] taught and nourished by the Word of God" and "being formed and animated by the inspirational power conveyed by Scripture".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biblical inspiration</span> Doctrine in Christian theology

Biblical inspiration is the doctrine in Christian theology that the human writers and canonizers of the Bible were led by God with the result that their writings may be designated in some sense the word of God. This belief is traditionally associated with concepts of the biblical infallibility and the internal consistency of the Bible.

Prima scriptura is the Christian doctrine that canonized scripture is "first" or "above all" other sources of divine revelation. Implicitly, this view suggests that, besides canonical scripture, there can be other guides for what a believer should believe and how they should live, such as the Holy Spirit, created order, traditions, charismatic gifts, mystical insight, angelic visitations, conscience, common sense, the views of experts, the spirit of the times or something else. Prima scriptura suggests that ways of knowing or understanding God and his will that do not originate from canonized scripture are perhaps helpful in interpreting that scripture, but testable by the canon and correctable by it, if they seem to contradict the scriptures. Prima sciptura is upheld by the Anglican, Methodist and Pentecostal traditions of Christianity, which suggest that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible.

Biblical literalism or biblicism is a term used differently by different authors concerning biblical interpretation. It can equate to the dictionary definition of literalism: "adherence to the exact letter or the literal sense", where literal means "in accordance with, involving, or being the primary or strict meaning of the word or words; not figurative or metaphorical".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reformed fundamentalism</span> Fundamentalism in the Reformed tradition

Reformed fundamentalism arose in some conservative Presbyterian, Congregationalist, Reformed Anglican, Reformed Baptist, Non-denominational and other Reformed churches, which agrees with the motives and aims of broader evangelical Protestant fundamentalism. The movement was historically defined by a repudiation of liberal and modernist theology, the publication (1905–1915) entitled, The Fundamentals, and had the intent to progress and revitalise evangelical Protestantism in predominantly English-speaking Protestant countries, as well as to reform separated churches according to the Bible, historic expression of faith and the principles of the Reformation. The Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy, and the Downgrade controversy, kindled the growth and development of reformed fundamentalism in the United States and the United Kingdom. Reformed fundamentalists have laid greater emphasis on historic confessions of faith, such as the Westminster Confession of Faith. Sixteenth century Reformers such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, John Knox, Theodore Beza, Philip Melanchthon and Protestant ministers such as Matthew Henry, John Gill, John Bunyan, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Charles Spurgeon, J. C. Ryle, John Burgon, F. B. Meyer, Dwight L. Moody, George Müller and G. Campbell Morgan have shaped the leaders in this reformed tradition.

The rule of faith is the name given to the ultimate authority in Christian belief or fundamental hermeneutic (interpretive) standard. It was used by Early Christian writers such as Tertullian. The phrase is sometimes used for early creeds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bibliology</span> Branch of systematic theology that deals with the Bible

Bibliology, also known as the Doctrine of Scripture, is a branch of systematic theology that deals with the nature, character, and authority of the Bible.

Bibliolatry is the worship of a book, idolatrous homage to a book, or the deifying of a book. It is a form of idolatry. The sacred texts of some religions disallow icon worship, but over time the texts themselves are treated as sacred the way idols are, and believers may end up effectively worshipping the book. Bibliolatry extends claims of inerrancy—hence perfection—to the texts, precluding theological innovation, evolving development, or progress. Bibliolatry can lead to revivalism, disallows re-probation, and can lead to persecution of unpopular doctrines.

Religious views on truth vary both between and within religions. The most universal concept of religion that holds true in every case is the inseparable nature of truth and religious belief. Each religion sees itself as the only path to truth. Religious truth, therefore, is never relative, always absolute.

Peter Eric Enns is an American Biblical scholar and theologian. He has written widely on hermeneutics, Christianity and science, historicity of the Bible, and Old Testament interpretation. Outside of his academic work Enns is a contributor to HuffPost and Patheos. He has also worked with Francis Collins' The BioLogos Foundation. His book Inspiration and Incarnation challenged conservative/mainstream Evangelical methods of biblical interpretation. His book The Evolution of Adam questions the belief that Adam was a historical figure. He also wrote The Bible Tells Me So: Why Defending Scripture Has Made Us Unable to Read It and The Sin of Certainty: Why God Desires Our Trust More than Our 'Correct' Beliefs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cessationism versus continuationism</span> Christian theological dispute

Cessationism versus continuationism involves a Christian theological dispute as to whether spiritual gifts remain available to the church, or whether their operation ceased with the Apostolic Age of the church. The cessationist doctrine arose in the Reformed theology: initially in response to claims of Roman Catholic miracles. Modern discussions focus more on the use of spiritual gifts in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements, though this emphasis has been taught in traditions that arose earlier, such as Methodism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Criticism of Protestantism</span> Overview of criticism of Protestantism

Criticism of Protestantism covers critiques and questions raised about Protestantism, the Christian denominations which arose out of the Protestant Reformation. While critics may praise some aspects of Protestantism which are not unique to the various forms of Protestantism, Protestantism is faced with criticism mainly from the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, although Protestant denominations have also engaged in self-critique and criticized one another. According to both the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy, many major, foundational Protestant doctrines have been officially declared heretical.

References

  1. ↑ For example, in the self-referential verse: "All scripture is given by inspiration of God [...]" (2 Timothy 3:16).
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Oliver, W. H.; Oliver, E. (2020-06-17). "Sola Scriptura: Authority versus interpretation?". Acta Theologica . 40 (1): 102–123. doi: 10.18820/23099089/actat.v40i1.7 . hdl: 10500/27000 . ISSN   2309-9089. S2CID   225679225.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Witt, Andrew C. (2014). "The Lost World of Scripture: Ancient Literary Culture and Biblical Authority by John H. Walton and D. Brent Sandy, IVP Academic, 2013 (ISBN 978-0-8308-4032-8), 320 pp., pb $24". Reviews in Religion & Theology. 21 (3): 417–419. doi:10.1111/rirt.12393. ISSN   1467-9418.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Woodbridge, John. "Biblical Authority and the Christian Tradition". The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 "biblical literature - The critical study of biblical literature: exegesis and hermeneutics | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
  6. 1 2 Smith, Geoffrey. "What is biblical inerrancy? A New Testament scholar explains". The Conversation. Retrieved 2022-01-03.
  7. 1 2 "Theologian of God's word", Reading in the Presence of Christ, T&t Clark, 2021, doi:10.5040/9780567698612.ch-002, ISBN   978-0-5676-9859-9, S2CID   242372309 , retrieved 2022-01-04
  8. ↑ "biblical literature - Non-European versions | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-01-04.
  9. 1 2 "biblical literature | Definition, Types, Significance, Survey, & Development | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-01-04.
  10. 1 2 "Orthodox Judaism | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-01-04.
  11. ↑ Berger, Michael (1998). Rabbinic Authority. Oxford University Press, Incorporated. pp. 97–152. ISBN   9780195352719.
  12. ↑ 2 Timothy 3:16 All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness | English Standard Version 2016 (ESV) | Download the Bible App now.
  13. ↑ Spronk, Klaas (2009-01-01). "The Biblical Canon: Its Origin, Transmission, and Authority". Journal for the Study of Judaism. 40 (1): 124–125. doi:10.1163/157006308X375933. ISSN   1570-0631.
  14. 1 2 Omanson, Roger (1983-02-01). "Book Review: Biblical Authority or Biblical Tyranny? Scripture and the Christian Pilgrimage". Review & Expositor. 80 (1): 144. doi:10.1177/003463738308000120. S2CID   170481345.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 "biblical literature - Texts and versions | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-01-07.
  16. ↑ Rogers, Jack B.; McKim, Donald K. (1979). The Authority and Interpretation of the Bible: An Historical Approach (reprint ed.). Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers (published 1999). ISBN   9781579102135 . Retrieved 9 March 2020.
  17. ↑ Woodbridge, John D. (1982). Biblical Authority: A Critique of the Rogers/McKim Proposal. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. ISBN   9780310447511 . Retrieved 2017-12-04.
  18. ↑ Compare: Woodbridge, John D. (1982). "Foreword". Biblical Authority: A Critique of the Rogers/McKim Proposal. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 10. ISBN   9780310447511 . Retrieved 2021-11-20. In this volume by John Woodbridge we discover that key figures in the history of the church who played a decisive role at neural points in the formulation of Christian doctrine have clearly and unequivocally taught precisely what conservative Evangelicals today teach about inerrancy.
  19. ↑ "Methodist Beliefs: In What Ways Are Lutherans Different from United Methodists?". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  20. 1 2 "Definition of MAGISTERIUM". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2022-01-04.
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