Bioecological model

Last updated

The bioecological model of development is the mature and final revision of Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory. The primary focus of ecological systems theory is on the systemic examination of contextual variability in development processes. It focuses on the world outside the developing person and how they were affected by it. After publication of The Ecology of Human Development, [1] Bronfenbrenner's first comprehensive statement of ecological systems theory, additional refinements were added to the theory. [2] Whereas earlier statements of ecological systems theory focused on characteristics of the environment, the goal of the bioecological model was to explicate how characteristics of the developing person influenced the environments to which the person was exposed and how they were affected by the environment. [3] The bioecological model is strongly influenced by Bronfenbrenner's collaborations with Stephen Ceci. [4] Whereas much of Bronfenbrenner's work had focused on social development and the influence of social environments on development, Ceci's work focuses on memory and intelligence. [5] The bioecological model reflects Ceci's work on contextual variability in intelligence and cognition and Bronfenbrenner's interest in developmentally instigative characteristics - how people help to create their own environments. [3]

Contents

Evolution of Bronfenbrenner's theory

Bronfenbrenner's initial investigations into contextual variability in developmental processes can be seen in the 1950s in the analysis of differences in methods of parental discipline as a function of historical time and social class. [6] It was further developed in his work on the differential effects of parental discipline on boys and girls in the 1960s and of convergence of socialization processes in the US and USSR in the 1970s. [3] These works were expressed in the experimental variations built in the development and implementation of the HeadStart program. [7] informally discussed new ideas concerning Ecological Systems Theory throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s during lectures and presentations to the psychological community. [8] Bronfenbrenner published a major statement of ecological systems theory in American Psychologist, [9] articulated it in a series of propositions and hypotheses in his most cited book, The Ecology of Human Development and further developing it in The Bioecological Model of Human Development and later writings. [10] [11] [12]

Bronfenbrenner's early thinking was strongly influenced by other developmentalists and social psychologists who studied developmental processes as contextually bound and dependent on the meaning of experience as defined by the developing person. [13] One strong influence was Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist who emphasized recognized that learning always occurs and cannot be separated from a social context. A second influence was Kurt Lewin, a German forerunner of ecological systems models who focused on a person's psychological activities that occur within a kind of psychological field, [14] including all the events in the past, present, and future that shape and affect an individual. The centrality of the person's interpretation of their environment and phenomenological nature was built on the work of Thomas & Thomas: “(i)f men define situations as real they are real in their consequences”. [15]

Bronfenbrenner was also influenced by his colleague, Stephen J. Ceci, with whom he co-authored the article “Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological theory” in 1994. [5] Ceci is a developmental psychologist who redefined modern developmental psychology's approach to intellectual development. He focused on predicting a pattern of associations among ecological, genetic, and cognitive variables as a function of proximal processes. Together, Bronfenbrenner and Ceci published the beginnings of the bioecological model and made it an accessible framework to use in understanding developmental processes. [5]

History

The history of bioecological systems theory is divided into two periods. The first period resulted in the publication of Bronfenbrenner's theory of ecological systems theory, titled The Ecology of Human Development, in 1979. [16] Bronfenbrenner described the second period as a time of criticism and evaluation of his original work. [17]

The development of ecological systems theory arose because Bronfenbrenner noted a lack of focus on the role of context in terms of development. He argued the environment in which children operate is important because development may be shaped by their interactions with the specific environment. He urged his colleagues to study development in terms of ecological contexts, that is the normal environments of children (schools, homes, daycares). Researchers heeded his advice and a great deal of research flourished in the early 1980s that focused on context.

However, where prior research was ignoring context, Bronfenbrenner felt current research focused too much on context and ignored development. In his justification for a new theory, Bronfenbrenner wrote he was not pleased with the direction of research in the mid 1980s and that he felt there were other realms of development that were overlooked. [8]

In comparison to the original theory, bioecological systems theory adds more emphasis to the person in the context of development. Additionally, Bronfenbrenner chose to leave out key features of the ecological systems theory (e.g., ecological validity and ecological experiments) during his development of bioecological systems theory. As a whole, Bronfenbrenner's new theory continued to go through a series of transformations as he continuously analyzed different factors in human development. Critical components of bioecological systems theory did not emerge all at once. Instead, his ideas evolved and adapted to the research and ideas of the times. For example, the role of proximal processes, which is now recognized as a key feature of bioecological systems theory, did not emerge until the 1990s. [17] This theory went through a series of transformations and elaborations until 2005 when Bronfenbrenner died. [18]

Process–Person–Context–Time

Bronfenbrenner further developed the model by adding the chronosystem, which refers to how the person and environments change over time. He also placed a greater emphasis on processes and the role of the biological person. The Process–Person–Context–Time Model (PPCT) has since become the bedrock of the bioecological model. PPCT includes four concepts. The interactions between the concepts form the basis for the theory. [8]

1. Process – Bronfenbrenner viewed proximal processes as the primary mechanism for development, featuring them in two central propositions of the bioecological model.
Proposition 1: [H]uman development takes place through processes of progressively more complex reciprocal interaction between an active, evolving biopsychological human organism and the persons, objects, and symbols in its immediate external environment. To be effective, the interaction must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time. Such enduring forms of interaction in the immediate environment are referred to as proximal processes. [18]
Proximal processes are the development processes of systematic interaction between person and environment. [19] Bronfenbrenner identifies group and solitary activities such as playing with other children or reading as mechanisms through which children come to understand their world and formulate ideas about their place within it. [17] However, processes function differently depending on the person and the context.
Proposition 2: The form, power, content, and direction of the proximal processes effecting development vary systematically as a joint function of the characteristics of the developing person; of the environment—both immediate and more remote—in which the processes are taking place; the nature of the developmental outcomes under consideration; and the social continuities and changes occurring over time through the life course and the historical period during which the person has lived. [18]
2. Person – Bronfenbrenner acknowledged the role that personal characteristics of individuals play in social interactions. [18] He identified three personal characteristics that can significantly influence proximal processes across the lifespan. Demand characteristics such as age, gender or physical appearance set processes in motion, acting as “personal stimulus” characteristics. [17] Resource characteristics are not as immediately recognizable and include mental and emotional resources such as past experiences, intelligence, and skills as well as material resources such as access to housing, education, and responsive caregivers. [18] Force characteristics are related to variations in motivation, persistence and temperament. Bronfenbrenner notes that even when children have equivalent access to resources, their developmental courses may differ as a function of characteristics such as drive to succeed and persistence in the face of hardship. In doing this, Bronfenbrenner provides a rationale for how environments (i.e., the systems mentioned above under “The Original Model: Ecological Systems Theory”) influence personal characteristics, yet also suggests personal characteristics can change environments. [17]
3. Context – Context involves five interconnected systems, which are based on Bronfenbrenner’s original model, ecological systems theory. The microsystem describes environments such as home or school in which children spend significant time interacting. Mesosystems are interrelations between microsystems. The exosystem describes events that have important indirect influence on development (e.g., a parent consistently working late). [19] The macrosystem is a feature of any group (culture, subculture) that share values and belief systems. The chronosystem describes historical circumstances that affect contexts at all other levels. [18]
4. Time – Time has a prominent place in this developmental model. It is constituted at three levels: micro, meso, and macro. Micro-time refers to what is happening during specific episodes of proximal processes. Meso-time refers to the extent to which the processes occur in the person’s environment, such as over the course of days, weeks or years. [17] Macro-time (or the chronosystem) focuses on the shifting expectancies in wider culture. This functions both within and across generations and affects proximal processes across the lifespan. [8]

Thus, the bioecological model highlights the importance of understanding a person's development within environmental systems. It further explains that both the person and the environment affect one another bidirectionally. Although even Bronfenbrenner himself critiqued the falsifiability of the model, [19] the bioecological model has real world applications for developmental research, practice, and policies (as demonstrated below).

Research implications

In addition to adding to the theoretical understanding of human development, the bioecological model lends itself to changes in the conceptualization of the research endeavor. In some of his earliest comments on the state of developmental research, Bronfenbrenner lamented that developmental research concerned itself with studying “strange behavior of children in strange situations for the briefest possible period of time”. [20] He proposed, rather, that developmental science should take as its goal a study of children in context in order to best determine which processes are naturally “developmentally generative” (promote development) and which are naturally “developmentally disruptive” (prevent development).

Bronfenbrenner set up a contrast to the traditional “confirmatory” approach to hypothesis testing (in which research is done to “confirm” that a hypothesis is correct or incorrect) when specifying the types of research needed to support the bioecological model of development. [21] In Bronfenbrenner's view, the dynamic nature of the model calls for “primarily generative” research designs that explore interactions between proximal processes (see Proposition 1) and the developing person, environment, time, and developmental outcome (Proposition 2). Bronfenbrenner called this type of research the “discovery mode” of developmental science.

To best capture such dynamic processes, developmental research designs would ideally be longitudinal (over time), rather than cross-sectional (a single point in time), and conducted in children's natural environments, rather than a laboratory. Such designs would thus occur in schools, homes, day-care centers, and other environments in which proximal processes are most likely to occur. The bioecological model also proposes that the most scientifically rich studies would include more than one distinct but theoretically related proximal process in the same design. [8] Indeed, studies that claim to be based upon bioecological theory should include elements of process, person, context, and time, and should include explicit explanation and acknowledgement if one of the elements is lacking. [17] Based on the interactions of proposed elements of the PPCT model, appropriate statistical analyses of PPCT data would likely include explorations of mediation and moderation effects, as well as multilevel modeling of data to account for the nesting of different components of the model. Moreover, research that includes both genetic and environmental components would capture even more of the bioecological model's elements.

Ecological techno-subsystem

The ecological systems theory emerged before the advent of Internet revolution and the developmental influence of then available technology (e.g., television) was conceptually situated in the child's microsystem. Johnson and Puplampu, for instance, proposed in 2008 the ecological techno-subsystem, a dimension of the microsystem. [22] This microsystem comprises both child interaction with living (e.g., peers, parents, teachers) and non-living (e.g., hardware, gadgets) elements of communication, information, and recreation technologies in immediate or direct environments. Johnson published a validation study in 2010. [23]

Neo-ecological Theory

Whereas the theory of the techno-subsystem merely highlights the influence that digital technologies have on the development of an individual within the microsystem, Navarro and Tudge argue that the virtual world be given its own consideration throughout the Bioecological model. [24] They suggest two key modifications as a way to incorporate Bonfenbrenner's theory into our technologized world:

  1. The microsystem should be delineated to include distinct forms in which an individual lives: physical microsystem and virtual microsystem.
  2. The role of the macrosystem, specifically the cultural influence of digital technology, should be emphasized in understanding human development. [24]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Developmental psychology</span> Scientific study of psychological changes in humans over the course of their lives

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why humans grow, change, and adapt across the course of their lives. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thinking, feeling, and behaviors change throughout life. This field examines change across three major dimensions, which are physical development, cognitive development, and social emotional development. Within these three dimensions are a broad range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept, and identity formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human ecology</span> Study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments

Human ecology is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The philosophy and study of human ecology has a diffuse history with advancements in ecology, geography, sociology, psychology, anthropology, zoology, epidemiology, public health, and home economics, among others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Landscape ecology</span> Science of relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy. Concisely, landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.

Ecological psychology is the scientific study of perception-action from a direct realist approach. Ecological psychology is a school of psychology that follows much of the writings of Roger Barker and James J. Gibson. Those in the field of Ecological Psychology reject the mainstream explanations of perception laid out by cognitive psychology. The ecological psychology can be broken into a few sub categories: perception, action, and dynamical systems. As a clarification, many in this field would reject the separation of perception and action, stating that perception and action are inseparable. These perceptions are shaped by an individual's ability to engage with their emotional experiences in relation to the environment and reflect on and process these. This capacity for emotional engagement leads to action, collective processing, social capital, and pro environmental behaviour.

Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of the developed adult brain and cognitive psychology. Qualitative differences between how a child processes their waking experience and how an adult processes their waking experience are acknowledged. Cognitive development is defined as the emergence of the ability to consciously cognize, understand, and articulate their understanding in adult terms. Cognitive development is how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of their world through the relations of genetic and learning factors. There are four stages to cognitive information development. They are, reasoning, intelligence, language, and memory. These stages start when the baby is about 18 months old, they play with toys, listen to their parents speak, they watch TV, anything that catches their attention helps build their cognitive development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-born American psychologist best known for using a contextual framework to better understand human development. This framework, broadly referred to as 'ecological systems theory', was formalized in an article published in American Psychologist, articulated in a series of propositions and hypotheses in his most cited book, The Ecology of Human Development and further developed in The Bioecological Model of Human Development and later writings. He argued that natural experiments and applied developmental interventions provide valuable scientific opportunities. These beliefs were exemplified in his involvement in developing the US Head Start program in 1965. Bronfenbrenner's writings about the limitations of understanding child development solely from experimental laboratory research and the potential for using contextual variability to provide insight into developmental processes was important in changing the focus of developmental psychology.

Human behavioral ecology (HBE) or human evolutionary ecology applies the principles of evolutionary theory and optimization to the study of human behavioral and cultural diversity. HBE examines the adaptive design of traits, behaviors, and life histories of humans in an ecological context. One aim of modern human behavioral ecology is to determine how ecological and social factors influence and shape behavioral flexibility within and between human populations. Among other things, HBE attempts to explain variation in human behavior as adaptive solutions to the competing life-history demands of growth, development, reproduction, parental care, and mate acquisition. HBE overlaps with evolutionary psychology, human or cultural ecology, and decision theory. It is most prominent in disciplines such as anthropology and psychology where human evolution is considered relevant for a holistic understanding of human behavior.

Evolutionary developmental psychology (EDP) is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of evolution by natural selection, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of both the genetic and environmental mechanisms that underlie the development of social and cognitive competencies, as well as the epigenetic processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions.

A microsystem is a self-contained subsystem located within a larger system. It generally constitutes the smallest unit of analysis in systems theory.

Social learning is learning that takes place at a wider scale than individual or group learning, up to a societal scale, through social interaction between peers.

Ecological systems theory is a broad term used to capture the theoretical contributions of developmental psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner. Bronfenbrenner developed the foundations of the theory throughout his career, published a major statement of the theory in American Psychologist, articulated it in a series of propositions and hypotheses in his most cited book, The Ecology of Human Development and further developing it in The Bioecological Model of Human Development and later writings. A primary contribution of ecological systems theory was to systemically examine contextual variability in development processes. As the theory evolved, it placed increasing emphasis on the role of the developing person as an active agent in development and on understanding developmental process rather than "social addresses" as explanatory mechanisms.

Ecological counseling is an approach that integrates personal and environmental factors to conceptualize human issues by focusing on their interaction. By doing so, divergent forces that converge through the development of human life can be organized into a logical and coherent narrative. This process attempts to assist people in recreating their lives, similar to various forms of counseling.

Socio-ecological models were developed to further the understanding of the dynamic interrelations among various personal and environmental factors. Socioecological models were introduced to urban studies by sociologists associated with the Chicago School after the First World War as a reaction to the narrow scope of most research conducted by developmental psychologists. These models bridge the gap between behavioral theories that focus on small settings and anthropological theories.

A social-ecological system consists of 'a bio-geo-physical' unit and its associated social actors and institutions. Social-ecological systems are complex and adaptive and delimited by spatial or functional boundaries surrounding particular ecosystems and their context problems.

Pharmacocybernetics is an upcoming field that describes the science of supporting drugs and medications use through the application and evaluation of informatics and internet technologies, so as to improve the pharmaceutical care of patients. It is an interdisciplinary field that integrates the domains of medicine and pharmacy, computer sciences and psychological sciences to design, develop, apply and evaluate technological innovations which improve drugs and medications management, as well as prevent or solve drug-related problems.

School climate refers to the quality and character of school life. It has been described as "the heart and soul of the school ... that essence of a school that leads a child, a teacher, and an administrator to love the school and to look forward to being there each school day." A positive school climate helps people feel socially, emotionally and physically safe in schools. It includes students', parents' and school personnel's norms, beliefs, relationships, teaching and learning practices, as well as organizational and structural features of the school. According to the National School Climate Council, a sustainable, positive school climate promotes students' academic and social emotional development.

Probabilistic epigenesis is a way of understanding human behavior based on the relationship between experience and biology. It is a variant form of epigenetics, proposed by American psychologist Gilbert Gottlieb in 1991. Gottlieb’s model is based on Conrad H. Waddington's idea of developmental epigenesis. Both theories examine the complexity of the ways in which the brain develops and explore factors that occur outside the genome. However, probabilistic epigenesis differs from Waddington’s model as it relies much more heavily on the potential developmental impacts of experience and environment and how they interact with an individual’s genes. Probabilistic epigenesis takes into account developmental, hormonal, environmental, neuropsychological, and genetic factors in order to explain various forms of behavior.

Relational developmental systems (RDS) is a developmental psychological metatheory and conceptual framework. It is an extension of developmental systems theory that is based on the view that relationism is a superior alternative to Cartesian mechanism. RDS is the leading framework in modern developmental science. According to RDS metatheory, interactions between individuals and their environments, rather than either entity acting separately, are the cause of all aspects of human development. The term "relational developmental systems paradigm" has been used to refer to the combination of the RDS metatheory and the relationist worldview. The RDS framework is also fundamentally distinct from that of quantitative behavioral genetics, in that the former focuses on the causes of individual development, while the latter focuses on individual differences. RDS theorists reject the dichotomies associated with Cartesian dualism, such as those between nature and nurture, and between basic and applied science.

Relationship science is an interdisciplinary field dedicated to the scientific study of interpersonal relationship processes. Due to its interdisciplinary nature, relationship science is made-up of researchers of various professional backgrounds within psychology and outside of psychology, but most researchers who identify with the field are psychologists by training. Additionally, the field's emphasis has historically been close and intimate relationships, which includes predominantly dating and married couples, parent-child relationships, and friendships & social networks, but some also study less salient social relationships such as colleagues and acquaintances.

The Department of Human Development was a multidisciplinary department at Cornell University from 1925 to 2021. During its lifetime, the Department led research on developmental science to simultaneously advance theory and improve life. The department emphasized an ecological perspective of human development that examined social, cultural, biological, and psychological processes and mechanisms of growth and change throughout the life cycle and across diverse contexts. Many significant social science scholars of the 20th and 21st century, including Urie Bronfenbrenner and Kurt Lewin, were among the department's faculty. A number of the department's graduate students became significant figures in the social sciences with their work tending toward interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary approaches.

References

  1. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, Urie (1979). The ecology of human development : experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN   978-0-674-22456-8. OCLC   4515541.
  2. ↑ Rosa, Edinete Maria; Tudge, Jonathan (December 2013). "Urie Bronfenbrenner's Theory of Human Development: Its Evolution From Ecology to Bioecology: The Evolution of Urie Bronfenbrenner's Theory". Journal of Family Theory & Review. 5 (4): 243–258. doi:10.1111/jftr.12022.
  3. 1 2 3 Darling, Nancy (2007-11-14). "Ecological Systems Theory: The Person in the Center of the Circles". Research in Human Development. 4 (3–4): 203–217. doi:10.1080/15427600701663023. ISSN   1542-7609. S2CID   144440187.
  4. ↑ Ceci, Stephen J. (2006). "Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)". American Psychologist. 61 (2): 173–174. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.2.173. ISSN   1935-990X. PMID   16478360.
  5. 1 2 3 Bronfenbrenner U, Ceci SJ (October 1994). "Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: a bioecological model". Psychological Review. 101 (4): 568–586. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.101.4.568. PMID   7984707. S2CID   17402964.
  6. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, Urie (1958). "Socialization and social class through time and space". In Maccoby, Eleanor; Newcomb, T.M.; Hartley, E/ (eds.). Readings in social psychology. Holt. pp. 400–424. Holt. pp. 400–424.
  7. ↑ Zigler, Edward; Muenchow, Susan (1992). Head Start : the inside story of America's most successful educational experiment. New York. ISBN   0-465-03316-4. OCLC   25677234.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Urie Bronfenbrenner & Morris, P.A. (2006). "The bioecological model of human development". Handbook of Child Psychology. 1. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: 793–828. doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0114. ISBN   0470147652.
  9. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, Urie (1977). "Toward an experimental ecology of human development". American Psychologist. 32 (7): 513–531. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513. ISSN   1935-990X. S2CID   761949.
  10. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979).The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  11. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, Urie; Morris, Pamela A. (2007-06-01), Damon, William; Lerner, Richard M. (eds.), "The Bioecological Model of Human Development", Handbook of Child Psychology, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. chpsy0114, doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0114, ISBN   978-0-470-14765-8 , retrieved 2023-04-03
  12. ↑ Rosa, Edinete Maria; Tudge, Jonathan (2013). "Urie Bronfenbrenner's Theory of Human Development: Its Evolution From Ecology to Bioecology: The Evolution of Urie Bronfenbrenner's Theory". Journal of Family Theory & Review. 5 (4): 243–258. doi:10.1111/jftr.12022.
  13. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, Urie (1999), "Environments in developmental perspective: Theoretical and operational models.", Measuring environment across the life span: Emerging methods and concepts., Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 3–28, doi:10.1037/10317-001, ISBN   1-55798-561-8
  14. ↑ Kneessi, D. F. (2002). Bioscopes: Kurt Lewin. Retrieved from Kurt Lewin website: http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/bioscopes_kurtlewin.html Archived 2015-09-15 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ↑ Thomas, W. I.; Thomas, D. S. (1928). The Child In America. Knoff.
  16. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1–348. ISBN   0674224574
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tudge, J.R.H.; Mokrova, I.; Hatfield, B.E.; Karnik, R.B. (2009). "Uses and misuses of Bronfenbrenner's bioecological theory of human development" (PDF). Journal of Family Theory and Review. 1 (4): 198–210. doi:10.1111/j.1756-2589.2009.00026.x.
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bronfenbrenner, U.; Morris, P.A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. Vol. 1. New York. pp. 993–1023. ISBN   0-471-05527-1.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  19. 1 2 3 Bergen, D. (2008). Human development: traditional and contemporary theories. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 220. ISBN   978-0131343979.
  20. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). "Developmental research, public policy, and the ecology of childhood". Child Development. 45 (1). Wiley: 1–5. doi:10.2307/1127743. JSTOR   1127743.
  21. ↑ Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. pp. 3–15. ISBN   0-7619-2711-5.
  22. ↑ Johnson, Genevieve Marie; Puplampu, Korbla P. (2008). "Internet use during childhood and the ecological techno-subsystem". Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology. 34. doi: 10.21432/T2CP4T . ISSN   1499-6685.
  23. ↑ Johnson, Genevieve Marie (2010). "Internet Use and Child Development: Validation of the Ecological Techno-Subsystem". Journal of Educational Technology & Society. 13 (1): 176–185. ISSN   1176-3647. JSTOR   jeductechsoci.13.1.176.
  24. 1 2 Navarro, Jessica L.; Tudge, Jonathan R. H. (August 2023). "Technologizing Bronfenbrenner: Neo-ecological Theory". Current Psychology. 42 (22): 19338–19354. doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02738-3. ISSN   1046-1310. PMC   8782219 . PMID   35095241.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.