Biogeomorphology

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Slope stabilization by Chilean rhubarb on the coasts of Chacao Channel. Vegetation have mostly a protective effect on slopes. Costa de Chacao.jpg
Slope stabilization by Chilean rhubarb on the coasts of Chacao Channel. Vegetation have mostly a protective effect on slopes.

Biogeomorphology and ecogeomorphology are the study of interactions between organisms and the development of landforms, and are thus fields of study within geomorphology and ichnology. Organisms affect geomorphic processes in a variety of ways. For example, trees can reduce landslide potential where their roots penetrate to underlying rock, plants and their litter inhibit soil erosion, biochemicals produced by plants accelerate the chemical weathering of bedrock and regolith, and marine animals cause the bioerosion of coral. The study of the interactions between marine biota and coastal landform processes is called coastal biogeomorphology.

Contents

Phytogeomorphology is an aspect of biogeomorphology that deals with the narrower subject of how terrain affects plant growth. [1] In recent years a large number of articles have appeared in the literature dealing with how terrain attributes affect crop growth and yield in farm fields, and while they don't use the term phytogeomorphology the dependencies are the same. Precision agriculture models where crop variability is at least partially defined by terrain attributes can be considered as phytogeomorphological precision agriculture. [2]

Overview

Biogeomorphology is a multidisciplinary focus of geomorphology that takes research approaches from both geomorphology and ecology. It is a sub discipline of geomorphology. Biogeomorphology can be synthesized into two distinct approaches:

1. The influences that geomorphology plays on the biodiversity and distribution of flora and fauna.

2. The influences that biotic factors have on the way landforms are developed. [3]

There has been much work on these approaches such as; the effect that parent material has on the distribution of plants, [3] the increase of precipitation due to an influx of transpiration, the stability of a hillslope due to the abundance of vegetation or, the increase of sedimentation due to a beaver dam. Biogeomorphology shows the axiomatic relationship between certain land forming processes and biotic factors. That is, certain geomorphic processes shape the biota and biotic factors can shape land forming processes. [4]

Origins and early work

Figure 3 of Darwin's work on earthworms, the caption of which reads "A tower-like casting, probably ejected by a species of Perichaeta, from the Botanic Garden, Calcutta : of natural size, engraved from a photograph." Darwin, Earthworm, Fig. 3.JPG
Figure 3 of Darwin's work on earthworms, the caption of which reads "A tower-like casting, probably ejected by a species of Perichæta, from the Botanic Garden, Calcutta : of natural size, engraved from a photograph."

The earliest work related to biogeomorphology was Charles Darwin's 1881 book titled The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms . [5] [6] Although the field of biogeomorphology had not yet been named, Darwin's work represents the earliest examination of a faunal organism influencing landscape process and form. [6] Charles Darwin begins his work on worms with an examination of behavior and physiology, which then moves towards topics related to geomorphology, pedogenesis, and bioturbation. [5] [6] Observations and measurements of soil moved by earthworms, and emphasis on the role of earthworms in formation of humus, fertility of soils, and mixing of soils were all described in the book, which began to change the perspective on earthworms from pest to critical agent of pedogenesis. [5] [7] Despite the popularity of Darwin's final work, the scientific community was slow to recognize the significance of examining the role of organisms in influencing landscapes. [7] [8]

It wasn't until the late twentieth century that biogeomorphology began attracting the attention of more than a handful of researchers. [8]

Research approaches

There are two approaches to research in biogeomorphology. One is through the statistical and empirically derived means. This is an approach commonly used in the fields of ecology and biology. The approach is simply to employ large replication studies and deriving patterns from statistical data. [9] Whereas taking a more geomorphic research approach tends to derive patterns via theoretic knowledge and detailed measurements of multiple factors. [9] In turn, this uses smaller sample sizes than that of large replication studies.

Biogeomorphological processes

There are several biogeomorphological processes. Bioerosion is the weathering and removal of abiotic material via organic processes. [10] This can either be passive or active. Moreover, bioerosion is the chemical and or the mechanical weathering of landforms due to organic means. [3] Bioprotection is essentially the effect that organisms have on reducing the action of geomorphic processes. Best shown by algae covering a rock surface acts as a buffer from the waves erosive work. Bioconstruction refers to bioconstructors or ecosystem engineers. Ecosystem engineers are organisms that build mounds, dams, reefs &c. More specifically they are organisms that change the environment physically, directly or indirectly controlling the abundance of resources available in the environment accessible to organisms. [11]

Themes of complex systems in biogeomorphology

There are four main themes that underline the complex systems within biogeomorphology. [4] The first of which is multiple casualty. Multiple casualty is the way in which biota is deposited. More specifically, multiple casualty is caused by various processes. That is, processes such as fires, floods and hillslope instability directly or indirectly determining the distribution of flora and in turn fauna. [12] Ecosystem engineers are another theme underlying complex system of biogeomorphology. These organisms have the most profound effect on the overall ecosystem structure. [4] Some of the most common ecosystem engineers are earthworms. Earthworms aid in the production of humus and increase both soil aeration and area for roots and root hairs to utilize. With more space for roots, this can increase soil stability. Another strong example of ecosystem engineers are beavers. Beavers can increase the sedimentation in a channel as well as increase runoff rates due to a reduction of vegetative cover needed to build their dams. [13] Ecological topology is another theme of complex systems in biogeomorphology. This theme focuses on how the biota varies based on geographic location. [4] This ecological topology is controlled by a concept called stability domain. Stability domain describes the interaction of a set species and certain abiotic factors that act as a medium to the function and structure of an environment. [14] The final of the four underlying themes of the complex systems in biogeomorphology is ecological memory. Ecological memory is where certain biotic and abiotic factors have a recursive relationship and therefore can be encoded in organisms and the immediate environment. [4] An example of this can simply be the flame retardant properties in the bark of Coastal Sequoias due to the recurrence of fires

Climate change

Biogeomorphology and ecogeomorphology can aid with assessing the impacts of global climate change. This can especially be seen in coastal and estuarine systems due to; sea level rise, increased global temperatures, increased sea temperature, a higher frequency in and intensity of storms, and varying distributions of precipitation. [15] Biogeomorphology can outline some of the effects of climate change due to biocomplexity. Biocomplexity is in reference to the complex way in which organisms interact with their environment and its effect on biodiversity. [15] Using statistical data, one can derive how these environmental changes will affect the biodiversity of different trophic levels and different keystone species. [15]

See also

Related Research Articles

Abiotic stress is the negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment. The non-living variable must influence the environment beyond its normal range of variation to adversely affect the population performance or individual physiology of the organism in a significant way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecology</span> Study of organisms and their environment

Ecology is the study of the relationships among living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps with the closely related sciences of biogeography, evolutionary biology, genetics, ethology, and natural history. Ecology is a branch of biology, and it is not synonymous with environmentalism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem</span> Community of living organisms together with the nonliving components of their environment

An ecosystem consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and microbes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomorphology</span> Scientific study of landforms

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology, and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

Ecological classification or ecological typology is the classification of land or water into geographical units that represent variation in one or more ecological features. Traditional approaches focus on geology, topography, biogeography, soils, vegetation, climate conditions, living species, habitats, water resources, and sometimes also anthropic factors. Most approaches pursue the cartographical delineation or regionalisation of distinct areas for mapping and planning.

This glossary of ecology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts in ecology and related fields. For more specific definitions from other glossaries related to ecology, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of evolutionary biology, and Glossary of environmental science.

Tilth is a physical condition of soil, especially in relation to its suitability for planting or growing a crop. Factors that determine tilth include the formation and stability of aggregated soil particles, moisture content, degree of aeration, soil biota, rate of water infiltration and drainage. Tilth can change rapidly, depending on environmental factors such as changes in moisture, tillage and soil amendments. The objective of tillage is to improve tilth, thereby increasing crop production; in the long term, however, conventional tillage, especially plowing, often has the opposite effect, causing the soil carbon sponge to oxidize, break down and become compacted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioturbation</span> Reworking of soils and sediments by organisms.

Bioturbation is defined as the reworking of soils and sediments by animals or plants. It includes burrowing, ingestion, and defecation of sediment grains. Bioturbating activities have a profound effect on the environment and are thought to be a primary driver of biodiversity. The formal study of bioturbation began in the 1800s by Charles Darwin experimenting in his garden. The disruption of aquatic sediments and terrestrial soils through bioturbating activities provides significant ecosystem services. These include the alteration of nutrients in aquatic sediment and overlying water, shelter to other species in the form of burrows in terrestrial and water ecosystems, and soil production on land.

In biology and ecology, abiotic components or abiotic factors are non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems. Abiotic factors and the phenomena associated with them underpin biology as a whole. They affect a plethora of species, in all forms of environmental conditions, such as marine or land animals. Humans can make or change abiotic factors in a species' environment. For instance, fertilizers can affect a snail's habitat, or the greenhouse gases which humans utilize can change marine pH levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecosystem ecology</span> Study of living and non-living components of ecosystems and their interactions

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioerosion</span> Erosion of hard substrates by living organisms

Bioerosion describes the breakdown of hard ocean substrates – and less often terrestrial substrates – by living organisms. Marine bioerosion can be caused by mollusks, polychaete worms, phoronids, sponges, crustaceans, echinoids, and fish; it can occur on coastlines, on coral reefs, and on ships; its mechanisms include biotic boring, drilling, rasping, and scraping. On dry land, bioerosion is typically performed by pioneer plants or plant-like organisms such as lichen, and mostly chemical or mechanical in nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aquatic ecosystem</span> Ecosystem in a body of water

An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem found in and around a body of water, in contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain communities of organisms—aquatic life—that are dependent on each other and on their environment. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems. Freshwater ecosystems may be lentic ; lotic ; and wetlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forest ecology</span> Study of interactions between the biota and environment in forets

Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and ecosystems in forests. The management of forests is known as forestry, silviculture, and forest management. A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals, and micro-organisms in that area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.

<i>Lumbricus rubellus</i> Species of annelid worm

Lumbricus rubellus is a species of earthworm that is related to Lumbricus terrestris. It is usually reddish brown or reddish violet, iridescent dorsally, and pale yellow ventrally. They are usually about 25 millimetres (0.98 in) to 105 millimetres (4.1 in) in length, with around 95–120 segments. Their native distribution was mainland Europe and the British Isles, but they have currently spread worldwide in suitable habitats.

Soil ecology is the study of the interactions among soil organisms, and between biotic and abiotic aspects of the soil environment. It is particularly concerned with the cycling of nutrients, formation and stabilization of the pore structure, the spread and vitality of pathogens, and the biodiversity of this rich biological community.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to ecology:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal biogeomorphology</span>

Since the 1990s, biogeomorphology has developed as an established research field examining the interrelationship between organisms and geomorphic processes in a variety of environments, both marine, and terrestrial. Coastal biogeomorphology looks at the interaction between marine organisms and coastal geomorphic processes. Biogeomorphology is a subdiscipline of geomorphology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invasive earthworms of North America</span>

Invasive species of earthworms from the suborder Lumbricina have been expanding their range in North America. Their introduction can have marked effects on the nutrient cycles in temperate forests. These earthworms increase the cycling and leaching of nutrients by breaking up decaying organic matter and spreading it into the soil. Since plants native to these northern forests are evolutionarily adapted to the presence of thick layers of decaying organic matter, the introduction of worms can lead to loss of biodiversity as young plants face less nutrient-rich conditions. Some species of trees and other plants may be incapable of surviving such changes in available nutrients. This change in the plant diversity in turn affects other organisms and often leads to increased invasions of other exotic species as well as overall forest decline. They do not require a mate to reproduce, allowing them to spread faster.

Ecological inheritance occurs when organisms inhabit a modified environment that a previous generation created; it was first described in Odling-Smee (1988) and Odling-Smee et al. (1996) as a consequence of niche construction. Standard evolutionary theory focuses on the influence that natural selection and genetic inheritance has on biological evolution, when individuals that survive and reproduce also transmit genes to their offspring. If offspring do not live in a modified environment created by their parents, then niche construction activities of parents do not affect the selective pressures of their offspring. However, when niche construction affects multiple generations, ecological inheritance acts a inheritance system different than genetic inheritance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrient cycle</span> Set of processes exchanging nutrients between parts of a system

A nutrient cycle is the movement and exchange of inorganic and organic matter back into the production of matter. Energy flow is a unidirectional and noncyclic pathway, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition.

References

  1. ↑ Howard, J.A., Mitchell, C.W., 1985. Phytogeomorphology. Wiley.
  2. ↑ Reuter, H.I.; Giebel, A.; Wendroth, O. (2005). "Can Landform Stratification Improve Our Understanding of Crop Yield Variability". Precision Agriculture. 6 (6): 521–537. doi:10.1007/s11119-005-5642-8. S2CID   46724833.
  3. 1 2 3 Naylor, Larissa (2005). "The Contributions of Biogeomorphology to the Emerging Field of Geobiology". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 219.1 (1–2): 35–51. Bibcode:2005PPP...219...35N. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.10.013.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Stallins, J. Anthony (2006). "Geomorphology and Ecology: Unifying Themes for Complex Systems in Biogeomorphology". Geomorphology. 77.3 (3–4): 207–216. Bibcode:2006Geomo..77..207S. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.005.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Darwin, C. 1881. "The Formation of Vegetable Mould, Through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits." London: John Murray.
  6. 1 2 3 Tsikalas, S.G., Whitesides, C.J. 2013. Worm geomorphology: lessons from Darwin. "Progress in Physical Geography" 37(2):270-281.
  7. 1 2 Meysman, F.J.R., Middelburg, J.J., Heip, C.H.R. 2006. Bioturbation: a fresh look at Darwin's last idea. "Trends in Ecology and Evolution" 21(12): 688-695.
  8. 1 2 Butler, D.R., Hupp, C.R. 2013. The role of biota in geomorphology: ecogeomorphology. Ed. Shroder, J.F. Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 12. Elsevier: London.
  9. 1 2 Haussmann, N. (2011). "Biogeomorphology: Understanding Different Research Approaches". Earth Surface Processes and Landforms . 36 (1): 136–138. Bibcode:2011ESPL...36..136H. doi:10.1002/esp.2097. S2CID   130025356.
  10. ↑ Spencer, T. (1992). "Bioerosion and Biogeomorphology". Plant-Animal Interactions in the Marine Benthos. 46: 493–509.
  11. ↑ Jones, C.G. (1997). "Positive and Negative Effects of Organisms as Physical Ecosystem Engineers". Ecology. 78 (7): 1946–1957. doi:10.2307/2265935. JSTOR   2265935.
  12. ↑ Whittaker, R.H. (1970). "Communities and Ecosystems". Ecology. 58 (3): 897–898. doi:10.2307/2258550. JSTOR   2258550.
  13. ↑ Butler, D.A. (1995). Zoogeomorphology: Animals as Geomorphic Agents. Cambridge University Press. p. 231. ISBN   978-0521039321.
  14. ↑ Holling, C.S. (1992). "Cross-scale Morphology, Geometry, and Dynamics of Ecosystems". Ecology. 62 (4): 447–502. doi:10.2307/2937313. JSTOR   2937313.
  15. 1 2 3 Day, John (2008). "Consequences of Climate Change on the Ecogeomorphology of Coastal Wetlands". Estuaries and Coasts. 31 (3): 477–491. doi:10.1007/s12237-008-9047-6. S2CID   18812644.

Bibliography

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