Bird extinction

Last updated
2 taxidermized extinct birds, the Passenger Pigeon & Carolina Parakeet Taxidermy specimens of birds at National Museum of Natural History -USA-24Sept2009 (1).jpg
2 taxidermized extinct birds, the Passenger Pigeon & Carolina Parakeet

Bird extinction is the complete elimination of all species members under the taxonomic class, Aves. Out of all known bird species, (approximately 11,154), 159 (1.4%) have become extinct, with 226 (2%) being critically endangered. [1] There is a general consensus among ornithologists that if anthropogenic activities continue as current trends suggest, one-third of all bird species, and an even greater proportion of bird populations, will be rendered extinct by the end of the 21st century. [2]

Contents

For critically endangered species, scientists estimate they will face extinction in a few decades without proper conservation efforts; for some of these species, the current presence of extant populations is uncertain. [3]

Causes

While often impacted by many factors simultaneously, habitat loss, exploitation, and invasive species are the greatest influences on avian extinction. Island species are especially sensitive to these factors, with 95% of bird extinctions since the late 15th century being native to islands. [4] Habitat loss has a sizable impact on birds, with deforestation in particular associated with declines in around 70% of all known avian taxa. [5] Some birds may be more susceptible to anthropogenic activities due to morphology. Smaller avian species tend to be harmed more significantly by the destruction of habitat, and bigger species are often endangered more so by human hunting and invasive species. Larger birds faced with extinction are often island species, and these differences in influence among birds may be in association with traits that differ between many island and mainland birds. [6]

Habitat loss

Although the complete destruction of habitat can gravely diminish species viability, the fragmentation of habitat is also harmful and associated with extinction. For example, the Wood Thrush, although extant and not endangered, has seen substantial decline due in part to fragmented habitats. The Brown-headed Cowbird, a native brood parasite, is much more pervasive in smaller forested areas. This shift in habitat has made the wood thrush and other woodland songbirds further susceptible to parasitism, reducing their populations. [7]

Exploitation

Exploitative behavior, such as egg collection and hunting (e.g., for feathers. meat, taxidermy, etc.), is also linked to extinction and species decline. While not inherently activities in opposition to wildlife preservation, [8] excessive harvest can significantly harm populations, potentially resulting in extirpation and/or complete extinction. [9] While often associated with antiquity, bird exploitation is still an issue prevalent in the 21st century, even with the establishment of conservational statutes. The Ortolan Bunting, a songbird considered to be a traditional delicacy, is hunted illegally in France, where it faces complete extirpation. [10] The pet trade also has strong ties to bird extinction, particularly affecting parrots. This poaching was the primary cause of the Spix's Macaw's extinction in the wild. [11]

Invasive species

Invasive species can also pose a significant threat to bird survival, with birds of limited distribution (e.g., island species) at greater risk. [12] Invasives dangerous to birds (pigs, rodents, etc.) typically damage bird species via ground-level predation, which, especially for many island-endemic species, they have no experience with or defense against. In the case of the Kākāpō, a critically endangered New Zealand parrot, their sole means of defense against predators is via crypsis, involving minimal movement. This behavior is effective against native predators (i.e., raptors), but does little to dissuade the invasive mammals of New Zealand (e.g., rats, cats, and stoats). [13]

Many bird extinction events tied to disease also correlate with introduced species. Hawaiian honeycreepers, a family of finches native to Hawaii, are a prime example of this. Hawaiian honeycreeper populations are harmed by avian malaria, and its spread to these birds correlates with the arrival of the invasive southern house mosquito, a known avian malaria vector. [14]

Notable examples

Dodo

Dodo illustration ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg
Dodo illustration

The Dodo is perhaps one of the most widely recognized extinct bird species. A plump, flightless bird closely related to doves, the Dodo lived solely on the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. [15] [16] As is seen with regularity in species with abundant food and no predators on an isolated island, their descendants evolved per their environment. [17] Dodos were flightless and, especially compared to other doves, were large and stout. Mauritius was claimed by the Dutch near the turn of the 15th century, and many Dutch explorers observed and wrote of the Dodo. Their relative ease of capture and ample meat made them an appealing food source for mariners, who killed and ate many of them. Although hunting may have impacted their decline, introduced species are suspected to have had a strong hand in their extinction. The introduced pigs had great success on Mauritius and became abundant, likely killing dodo young and outcompeting adults. On top of habitat loss and the introduction of many more invasives, the Dodo is suspected to have gone extinct in the late 1600s, [18] likely before it was fully described by taxonomists. [19] Its sudden extinction highlights the susceptibility of endemic island species, and the dodo serves as an early poster species for anthropogenic extinction. [20]

Great auk

A taxidermized Great Auk Pinguinus impennis MUSE.jpg
A taxidermized Great Auk

The Great Auk (or, as it has been nicknamed, the “Penguin of the North”) was a flightless marine bird that inhabited the North Atlantic Ocean and its nearby islands. Its range once extended to the continental United States and Europe. [21] However, by the 1800’s, its range had shrunk, breeding only on a few North Atlantic rocky islands. Targeted for their coveted skins, eggs, and down, hunters took advantage of the Great Auk's breeding season, when pairs nested in large colonies on rocky islands. [22] It was much more difficult to hunt when not breeding, as birds were less concentrated and spent most of their time in frigid waters, where they were swift and adept swimmers. The last known sighting of the species alive was in 1844 when a breeding pair was found and strangled by fishermen, hoping to sell the birds' valuable skins. The Great Auk is believed to have gone extinct around this time. [23]

Passenger pigeon

The passenger pigeon was a flocking species that was once a species widespread in North America. Before the arrival of colonial Europeans to North America, the passenger pigeon was thought to account for up to 40% of all individual birds on the continent. [24] The main drivers of the species' extinction were habitat destruction and overhunting. On top of anthropogenic activities, the deforestation that put Passenger Pigeons at risk was also catalyzed by the invasive chestnut blight, which greatly reduced the number of American chestnut trees in North America. [25] Their abundance and congregative behavior made them an appealing choice for hunting, and the size of their populations led people to believe they were in no need of protection. The birds were killed in great numbers, and a widespread pigeon meat industry developed. Some environmental legislation was put into place to protect the declining Passenger Pigeon, but it did little to improve their populations. Due to their congregational breeding habits, captive breeding was nigh impossible, and populations further diminished. [26] It was declared extinct in 1914, upon the death of the last known survivor of the species, Martha, at the Cincinnati Zoo, 20 years after the species became extinct in the wild. [27] The Passenger Pigeon is one of the few recently extinct bird species that has been proposed for “de-extinction”. The entire genome of the species has been sequenced from surviving tissue, with the hope of being able to revive the species using genome engineering and in vitro fertilization. [28] [29]

Carolina parakeet

Also known as the Carolina parrot [30] or Carolina Conure, [31] the Carolina Parakeet was native to and abundant in much of the eastern half of the United States. The granivorous birds ate many agricultural crops in high numbers, much to the ire of local farmers. This, on top of interest in their colorful feathers, fueled massive killing efforts. Large death tolls and loss of habitat decimated their populations. [32] The Carolina Parakeet was deemed extinct in the early 1920s, with the last member of its species, a male named Incas, dying in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918. [33]

Tasmanian Emu

Tasmanian Emu.jpg
Tasmanian Emu
Animal life in the sea and on the land (1887) (14780637625).jpg
Emus at Stanley during the 1840s.jpg

The Tasmanian Emu, native to Tasmania in Australia, was a subspecies of the Emu bird. In comparison to its relative, the Emus, the Tasmanian Emus were believed to be smaller in size and appeared to have a darker plumage, lacking the distinctive black feather found in Emus. Historical records indicate that within just 20 years, from the 1830s to the 1850s, the Tasmanian emu became locally extinct. This occurred due to various factors that led to the disappearance of this subspecies. [16]

By region

Australia

In June 2020 the Royal Society of South Australia published a list of 95 Australian bird fossils. The list includes three species of huge flamingos from the Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre and Lake Frome areas of South Australia, which were estimated to inhabit the area for 25 million years before becoming extinct about 140,000 years ago, most likely from drought. There were also penguins measuring about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) tall, which lived between about 60 million and 30 million years ago, dying out in the Oligocene. Researcher Trevor Worthy said that little was known about the evolution of birds in Australia, which stands at about 1,000 species. [34] [35] [36]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carolina parakeet</span> Extinct species of parakeet native to North America

The Carolina parakeet, or Carolina conure, is an extinct species of small green neotropical parrot with a bright yellow head, reddish orange face, and pale beak that was native to the Eastern, Midwest, and Plains states of the United States. It was the only indigenous parrot within its range, as well as one of only three parrot species native to the United States. It was called puzzi la née or pot pot chee by the Seminole and kelinky in Chickasaw. Though formerly prevalent within its range, the bird had become rare by the middle of the 19th century. The last confirmed sighting in the wild was of the C. c. ludovicianus subspecies in 1910. The last known specimen, a male named Incas, perished in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1918, and the species was declared extinct in 1939.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dodo</span> Extinct large flightless pigeon from Mauritius

The dodo is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Mauritius, which is east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. The dodo's closest relative was the also-extinct and flightless Rodrigues solitaire. The two formed the subfamily Raphinae, a clade of extinct flightless birds that were a part of the family which includes pigeons and doves. The closest living relative of the dodo is the Nicobar pigeon. A white dodo was once thought to have existed on the nearby island of Réunion, but it is now believed that this assumption was merely confusion based on the also-extinct Réunion ibis and paintings of white dodos.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great auk</span> Extinct flightless seabird from the North Atlantic

The great auk is a species of flightless alcid that became extinct in the mid-19th century. It was the only modern species in the genus Pinguinus. It is not closely related to the Southern Hemisphere birds now known as penguins, which were discovered later by Europeans and so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk, which were called penguins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Columbidae</span> Family of birds

Columbidae is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. They primarily feed on plants, and can be taxonomically divided amongst granivores, that feed mostly on the ground on seeds, and frugivores, that feed mostly on fruits, from branches. The family occurs worldwide, often in close proximity with humans, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalayan and Australasian realms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rail (bird)</span> Family of birds

Rails are a large, cosmopolitan family of small- to medium-sized terrestrial and/or semi-amphibious birds. The family exhibits considerable diversity in its forms, and includes such ubiquitous species as the crakes, coots, and gallinule; other rail species are extremely rare or endangered. Many are associated with wetland habitats, some being semi-aquatic like waterfowl, but many more are wading birds or shorebirds. The ideal rail habitats are marsh areas, including rice paddies, and flooded fields or open forest. They are especially fond of dense vegetation for nesting. The rail family is found in every terrestrial habitat with the exception of dry desert, polar or freezing regions, and alpine areas. Members of Rallidae occur on every continent except Antarctica. Numerous unique island species are known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Réunion ibis</span> Extinct bird that was endemic to Réunion

The Réunion ibis or Réunion sacred ibis is an extinct species of ibis that was endemic to the volcanic island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean. The first subfossil remains were found in 1974, and the ibis was first scientifically described in 1987. Its closest relatives are the Malagasy sacred ibis, the African sacred ibis, and the straw-necked ibis. Travellers' accounts from the 17th and 18th centuries described a white bird on Réunion that flew with difficulty and preferred solitude, which was subsequently referred to as the "Réunion solitaire".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flightless bird</span> Birds that cannot fly

Flightless birds are birds that, through evolution, lost the ability to fly. There are over 60 extant species, including the well-known ratites and penguins. The smallest flightless bird is the Inaccessible Island rail. The largest flightless bird, which is also the largest living bird in general, is the common ostrich.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pink pigeon</span> Species of bird

The pink pigeon is a species of pigeon in the family Columbidae endemic to Mauritius. The pink pigeon nearly became extinct in the 1970s and the 1990s and is still very rare. It is the only Mascarene pigeon that has not become extinct. It was on the brink of extinction in 1991 when only 10 individuals remained, but its numbers have increased due to the efforts of the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust since 1977. While the population remains at below 500 birds as of 2011, the IUCN downlisted the species from Critically endangered to Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2000, and then downlisted it again to Vulnerable in 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Raphinae</span> Extinct subfamily of birds

The Raphinae are a clade of extinct flightless birds formerly called didines or didine birds. They inhabited the Mascarene Islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, but became extinct through hunting by humans and predation by introduced non-native mammals following human colonisation in the 17th century. Historically, many different groups have been named for both the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire, not all grouping them together. Most recently, it is considered that the two birds can be classified in Columbidae, often under the subfamily Raphinae. The first person to suggest a close affinity to the doves was Johannes Theodor Reinhardt, whose opinions were then supported by Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Martha (passenger pigeon)</span> Last known passenger pigeon

Martha was a passenger pigeon, the last known of her species; she was named "Martha" in honor of Martha Washington, the first lady of the United States from 1789 to 1797.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mauritius sheldgoose</span> Extinct species of bird

The Mauritius sheldgoose, also known as the Mauritius shelduck, is an extinct species of sheldgoose that was endemic to the island of Mauritius. While geese were mentioned by visitors to Mauritius in the 17th century, few details were provided by these accounts. In 1893, a carpometacarpus wing-bone and a pelvis from the Mare aux Songes swamp were used to name a new species of comb duck, Sarcidiornis mauritianus. These bones were connected to the contemporary accounts of geese and later determined to belong to a species related to the Egyptian goose and placed in the sheldgoose genus Alopochen. The Mauritius and Réunion sheldgoose may have descended from Egyptian geese that colonised the Mascarene islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tooth-billed pigeon</span> Species of bird

The tooth-billed pigeon, also known as the manumea, is a large pigeon found only in Samoa. It is the only living species of genus Didunculus. A related extinct species, the Tongan tooth-billed pigeon, is only known from subfossil remains in several archeological sites in Tonga. The tooth-billed pigeon is the national bird of Samoa and featured on the 20 tālā bills and the 50 sene pieces of the 2008/2011 series. Native only to Samoa's primary rainforest, it is considered to be endangered, with only a few hundred individuals thought to remain in existence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bird conservation</span> Field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds

Bird conservation is a field in the science of conservation biology related to threatened birds. Humans have had a profound effect on many bird species. Over one hundred species have gone extinct in historical times, although the most dramatic human-caused extinctions occurred in the Pacific Ocean as humans colonised the islands of Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia, during which an estimated 750–1,800 species of birds became extinct. According to Worldwatch Institute, many bird populations are currently declining worldwide, with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century. The biggest cited reason surrounds habitat loss. Other threats include overhunting, accidental mortality due to structural collisions, long-line fishing bycatch, pollution, competition and predation by pet cats, oil spills and pesticide use and climate change. Governments, along with numerous conservation charities, work to protect birds in various ways, including legislation, preserving and restoring bird habitat, and establishing captive populations for reintroductions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imperial pigeon</span> Genus of birds

Ducula is a genus of the pigeon family Columbidae, collectively known as imperial pigeons. They are large to very large pigeons with a heavy build and medium to long tails. They are arboreal, feed mainly on fruit and are closely related to the other genus of fruit-eating doves, Ptilinopus. Both genera display brightly coloured plumage, predominantly green, often with contrasting under-parts of purple, orange or red. Some Ducula have prominently swollen ceres. They have large gapes and swallow seeds whole, playing an important role in seed dispersal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endling</span> Last known individual of a species or subspecies

An endling is the last known individual of a species or subspecies. Once the endling dies, the species becomes extinct. The word was coined in correspondence in the scientific journal Nature.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mascarene grey parakeet</span> Extinct parrot from Mauritius and Réunion

The Mascarene grey parakeet, Mauritius grey parrot, or Thirioux's grey parrot, is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the Mascarene Islands of Mauritius and Réunion in the western Indian Ocean. It has been classified as a member of the tribe Psittaculini, along with other parrots from the Islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Julian P. Hume</span>

Julian Pender Hume is an English palaeontologist, artist and writer who lives in Wickham, Hampshire. He was born in Ashford, Kent, and grew up in Portsmouth, England.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parrots of New Zealand</span>

New Zealand is geographically isolated, and originally lacked any mammalian predators, hence parrots evolved to fill habitats from the ground dwelling kākāpō to the alpine dwelling kea as well as a variety of forest species. The arrival of Māori, then European settlers with their attendant animals, habitat destruction and even deliberate targeting, has resulted in their numbers plummeting. Today one species is on the brink of extinction and three other species range from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered, all impacted by invasive species. Further parrot species were not introduced by acclimatisation societies, but occasional releases, both deliberate and accidental, have resulted in self-sustaining populations of some Australian species. New Zealand was identified among the highest priority countries for parrot conservation in the world, due to its parrot diversity, endemism, threats, and having more threatened parrot species than expected.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">De-extinction</span> Process of re-creating an extinct species

De-extinction is the process of generating an organism that either resembles or is an extinct species. There are several ways to carry out the process of de-extinction. Cloning is the most widely proposed method, although genome editing and selective breeding have also been considered. Similar techniques have been applied to certain endangered species, in hopes to boost their genetic diversity. The only method of the three that would provide an animal with the same genetic identity is cloning. There are benefits and drawbacks to the process of de-extinction ranging from technological advancements to ethical issues.

References

  1. ↑ Loehle, Craig; Eschenbach, Willis (January 2012). "Historical bird and terrestrial mammal extinction rates and causes". Diversity and Distributions. 18 (1): 84–91. Bibcode:2012DivDi..18...84L. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00856.x . ISSN   1366-9516. S2CID   55510056.
  2. ↑ Ceballos, Gerardo; Ehrlich, Anne; Ehrlich, Paul R. (2015). The annihilation of nature: human extinction of birds and mammals. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins university press. ISBN   978-1-4214-1718-9.
  3. ↑ Pimm, Stuart; Raven, Peter; Peterson, Alan; Şekercioğlu, Çağan H.; Ehrlich, Paul R. (2006-07-18). "Human impacts on the rates of recent, present, and future bird extinctions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (29): 10941–10946. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0604181103 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   1544153 . PMID   16829570.
  4. ↑ Caro, Tim; Rowe, Zeke; Berger, Joel; Wholey, Philippa; Dobson, Andrew (May 2022). "An inconvenient misconception: Climate change is not the principal driver of biodiversity loss". Conservation Letters. 15 (3). Bibcode:2022ConL...15E2868C. doi: 10.1111/conl.12868 . ISSN   1755-263X. S2CID   246172852.
  5. ↑ Prakash, Sadguru; Verma, Ashok Kumar (2022). "Anthropogenic Activities and Biodiversity Threats" (PDF). International Journal of Biological Innovations. 04 (1): 94–103. doi:10.46505/IJBI.2022.4110. S2CID   247262857.
  6. ↑ Clavero, Miguel; Brotons, Lluís; Pons, Pere; Sol, Daniel (October 2009). "Prominent role of invasive species in avian biodiversity loss". Biological Conservation. 142 (10): 2043–2049. Bibcode:2009BCons.142.2043C. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.034. hdl: 10261/46561 .
  7. ↑ "Wood Thrush". Partners in Flight. Retrieved 2023-11-02.
  8. ↑ Shugart, Herman H. (1989), Likens, Gene E. (ed.), "The Role of Ecological Models in Long-Term Ecological Studies", Long-Term Studies in Ecology: Approaches and Alternatives, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 90–109, doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-7358-6_4, ISBN   978-1-4615-7358-6 , retrieved 2023-11-02
  9. ↑ Barri, Fernando R.; Martella, Mónica B.; Navarro, Joaquín L. (October 2008). "Effects of hunting, egg harvest and livestock grazing intensities on density and reproductive success of lesser rhea Rhea pennata pennata in Patagonia: implications for conservation". Oryx. 42 (4): 607. doi: 10.1017/s0030605307000798 . ISSN   0030-6053. S2CID   86087035.
  10. ↑ Jiguet, Frédéric; Robert, Alexandre; Lorrillière, Romain; Hobson, Keith A.; Kardynal, Kevin J.; Arlettaz, Raphaël; Bairlein, Franz; Belik, Viktor; Bernardy, Petra; Copete, José Luis; Czajkowski, Michel Alexandre; Dale, Svein; Dombrovski, Valery; Ducros, Delphine; Efrat, Ron (2019-05-03). "Unravelling migration connectivity reveals unsustainable hunting of the declining ortolan bunting". Science Advances. 5 (5): eaau2642. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.2642J. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau2642. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   6530999 . PMID   31131318.
  11. ↑ Jiguet, Frédéric; Robert, Alexandre; Lorrillière, Romain; Hobson, Keith A.; Kardynal, Kevin J.; Arlettaz, Raphaël; Bairlein, Franz; Belik, Viktor; Bernardy, Petra; Copete, José Luis; Czajkowski, Michel Alexandre; Dale, Svein; Dombrovski, Valery; Ducros, Delphine; Efrat, Ron (2019-05-03). "Unravelling migration connectivity reveals unsustainable hunting of the declining ortolan bunting". Science Advances. 5 (5): eaau2642. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.2642J. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau2642. ISSN   2375-2548. PMC   6530999 . PMID   31131318.
  12. ↑ Clavero, Miguel; Brotons, Lluís; Pons, Pere; Sol, Daniel (October 2009). "Prominent role of invasive species in avian biodiversity loss". Biological Conservation. 142 (10): 2043–2049. Bibcode:2009BCons.142.2043C. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.034. hdl: 10261/46561 . ISSN   0006-3207.
  13. ↑ Powlesland, R.G.; Roberts, A.; Lloyd, B. D.; Merton, D. V. (January 1995). "Number, fate, and distribution of kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) found on Stewart Island, New Zealand, 1979–92". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 22 (3): 239–248. doi: 10.1080/03014223.1995.9518039 . ISSN   0301-4223.
  14. ↑ MacPhee, Ross D. E.; Greenwood, Alex D. (2013-01-16). "Infectious Disease, Endangerment, and Extinction". International Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 2013: 1–9. doi: 10.1155/2013/571939 . ISSN   2090-8032. PMC   3562694 . PMID   23401844.
  15. ↑ "Raphus cucullatus: BirdLife International". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2012-05-01. 2012-05-01. doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2012-1.rlts.t22690059a39188976.en .
  16. 1 2 BioExplorer (2017-06-07). "Top 25 Extinct Birds of All Times | Causes of Mass Extinction of Birds". Bio Explorer. Retrieved 2023-12-09.
  17. ↑ Wright, Natalie A.; Steadman, David W.; Witt, Christopher C. (2016-04-11). "Predictable evolution toward flightlessness in volant island birds". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (17): 4765–4770. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.4765W. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1522931113 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   4855539 . PMID   27071105.
  18. ↑ Hume, Julian P. (January 2006). "The history of the DodoRaphus cucullatusand the penguin of Mauritius". Historical Biology. 18 (2): 69–93. Bibcode:2006HBio...18...69H. doi:10.1080/08912960600639400. ISSN   0891-2963. S2CID   2954728.
  19. ↑ Livezey, Bradley C. (June 1993). "An ecomorphological review of the dodo (Raphus cucullatus) and solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria), flightless Columbiformes of the Mascarene Islands". Journal of Zoology. 230 (2): 247–292. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1993.tb02686.x. ISSN   0952-8369.
  20. ↑ Turvey, Samuel T.; Cheke, Anthony S. (June 2008). "Dead as a dodo: the fortuitous rise to fame of an extinction icon". Historical Biology. 20 (2): 149–163. Bibcode:2008HBio...20..149T. doi:10.1080/08912960802376199. ISSN   0891-2963. S2CID   6257901.
  21. ↑ Southwell, Colin; Emmerson, Louise; Takahashi, Akinori; Kato, Akiko; Barbraud, Christophe; Delord, Karine; Weimerskirch, Henri (January 2017). "Recent studies overestimate colonization and extinction events for Adelie Penguin breeding colonies". The Auk. 134 (1): 39–50. doi: 10.1642/auk-16-125.1 . ISSN   0004-8038. S2CID   53600270.
  22. ↑ Serjeantson, Dale (January 2001). "The great auk and the gannet: a prehistoric perspective on the extinction of the great auk". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 11 (1–2): 43–55. doi:10.1002/oa.545. ISSN   1047-482X.
  23. ↑ "Who Killed the Great Auk?". The Auk. 119 (4): 1211–1213. 2002-10-01. doi: 10.1093/auk/119.4.1211 . ISSN   1938-4254.
  24. ↑ Bucher, Enrique H. (1992), "The Causes of Extinction of the Passenger Pigeon", Current Ornithology, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 1–36, doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9921-7_1, ISBN   978-1-4757-9923-1 , retrieved 2023-11-03
  25. ↑ Johnson, Kevin P.; Clayton, Dale H.; Dumbacher, John P.; Fleischer, Robert C. (October 2010). "The flight of the Passenger Pigeon: Phylogenetics and biogeographic history of an extinct species". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 57 (1): 455–458. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.05.010. ISSN   1055-7903. PMID   20478386.
  26. ↑ "Extinction: The Causes", The Passenger Pigeon, Princeton University Press, pp. 70–89, 2015-12-31, doi:10.1515/9781400852208.70, ISBN   9781400852208 , retrieved 2023-11-03
  27. ↑ Johnson, Kevin P.; Clayton, Dale H.; Dumbacher, John P.; Fleischer, Robert C. (October 2010). "The flight of the Passenger Pigeon: Phylogenetics and biogeographic history of an extinct species". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 57 (1): 455–458. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.05.010. ISSN   1055-7903. PMID   20478386.
  28. ↑ Elzinga, David C.; Boggess, Erin; Collignon, Jordan; Riederer, Alanna; Capaldi, Alex (2020-10-29). "An agent-based model determining a successful reintroduction of the extinct passenger pigeon". Natural Resource Modeling. 33 (4). Bibcode:2020NRM....33E2292E. doi: 10.1111/nrm.12292 . ISSN   0890-8575. S2CID   228986762.
  29. ↑ Seiser, Anna Lena (2018-12-31), ""The Great Passenger Pigeon Comeback"", Objektivität und Imagination, transcript Verlag, pp. 445–464, doi:10.1515/9783839438657-017, ISBN   9783839438657 , retrieved 2023-11-03
  30. ↑ "The New Audubon's 'Birds of America' The Birds of America John James Audubon". The Auk. 55 (2): 289–290. April 1938. doi: 10.2307/4078237 . ISSN   0004-8038. JSTOR   4078237.
  31. ↑ Watkins, Anne (2015-06-01). The Conure Handbook. Sourcebooks, Inc. ISBN   978-1-4380-6739-1.
  32. ↑ "Carolina Parakeet: Removal of a "Menace"". All About Birds. 2008-04-15. Retrieved 2023-11-03.
  33. ↑ Snyder, Noel F.; Russell, Keith (2002), "Carolina Parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis)", Birds of North America (print), The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington D.C, doi:10.2173/tbna.667.p , retrieved 2023-11-03
  34. ↑ Corvo, Shannon (1 July 2020). "Outback flamingos, giant penguins on new list of extinct Australian birds". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  35. ↑ Flinders University (26 June 2020). "No leg to stand on for Australia's flamingos". Phys.org. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  36. ↑ Worthy, Trevor H.; Nguyen, Jacqueline M. T. (2 January 2020). "An annotated checklist of the fossil birds of Australia". Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia. 144 (1). Informa UK Limited: 66–108. Bibcode:2020TRSAu.144...66W. doi: 10.1080/03721426.2020.1756560 . ISSN   0372-1426.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.