Black-and-white warbler

Last updated

Contents

Black-and-white warbler
Temporal range: Late Pleistocene–present
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Black-and-white warbler in Prospect Park (06193)2.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Parulidae
Genus: Mniotilta
Vieillot, 1816
Species:
M. varia
Binomial name
Mniotilta varia
(Linnaeus, 1766)
Mniotilta varia map.svg
Range of M. varia
  Breeding range
  Wintering range
Synonyms

Motacilla variaLinnaeus, 1766

The black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia) is a species of New World warbler, and the only member of its genus, Mniotilta. [2] It breeds in northern and eastern North America and winters in Florida, Central America, and the West Indies down to Peru. This species is a very rare vagrant to western Europe. [2]

Relative to other New World warblers, it is not well studied. [3]

Description

The black-and-white warbler is 11 cm (4.3 in) to 13 cm (5.1 in) in length with a mass of 8 g (0.28 oz) to 15 g (0.53 oz) grams. [3] [4] Wingspan ranges from 7.1 to 8.7 in (18–22 cm). [5]

Columbus Park - Chicago Black-and-white Warbler 2.jpg
Columbus Park – Chicago

True to their name, black-and-white warblers are black and white in colour. Both sexes have black and white crowns with a white eyebrow, black streaking on a white belly, black wings with two white wing bars, a black tail, a black-and-white streaked back, streaky undertail coverts, and grey-black legs and feet. Breeding males have a black-and-white streaked throat and black cheek, while females have a grey cheek and a white-cream coloured throat and sides. First fall males are very similar to adult females in colour and patterning, while first fall females resemble adult females but with less streaking and a more noticeable buffy wash. Juveniles are heavily spotted, but are similar to first fall individuals otherwise. [4]

This species is 12 cm (5 in) long and weighs 11 g (0.39 oz). [6] [3] The summer male black-and-white warbler is boldly streaked in black and white, and the bird has been described as a flying humbug. [7] Each wing is black with two white wing bars. Female and juvenile plumages are similar, but duller and less streaky than males.

This warbler can be confused with the blackpoll warbler (Setophaga striata). The blackpoll warbler is also black and white in its summer plumage, but has a solid black cap. The black-and-white warbler can also be confused behaviourally with the pine warbler (Setophaga pinus) and yellow-throated warbler (Setophaga dominica). [4] [8]

Taxonomy

Linnaeus described the black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia) in 1766. [9] [8] This warbler is a species of New World warbler or wood warbler (family Parulidae), and is the only member of its genus due to its unique foraging adaptations. [3]

It is known to hybridize with the cerulean warbler (Setophaga cerulea) and Blackburnian warbler (Setophaga fusca). The black-and-white warbler is thought to be closely related to the genus Setophaga . [4]

No subspecies are known. [3] [4]

Etymology

The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek mnion, meaning "seaweed", and tillo, "to pluck". Vieillot mistranslated the first word, mnion as "moss". The specific varia is from the Latin varius, meaning "variegated". [10]

Habitat and distribution

The black-and-white warbler is a migratory species, breeding in North America and wintering in North and South America. It is typically found in deciduous forest in its breeding range, but becomes more of a habitat generalist in the non-breeding season. [3]

Black-and-white warbler Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia), in Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary.jpg
Black-and-white warbler

Habitat

The black-and-white warbler occupies a broad niche, and is found in a variety of habitats.

In its breeding habitat, it prefers mature forest, but will occupy successional and second growth forest. Preferred forest types include deciduous and mixed forest, and this warbler sometimes occupies swampy forest.

During migration, this species prefers forest to other land cover types and is frequently found in riparian areas.

In its wintering habitat, it can be found in a variety of land cover types, from mangroves to wet, dry, and cloud forest. It occupies both successional and mature forest. [3] It has also been noted to winter in shade coffee plantations and gardens. [3] [11]

Males are territorial in both their summer and winter habitats. [12] [13]

Distribution

The black-and-white warbler breeds in northern and eastern North America. It ranges from the Northwest Territories to the northwest and Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, to North Carolina to the southeast and Texas to the southwest. This species is migratory, wintering in Florida, Central America, the West Indies and northern South America down to Peru. [3] The IUCN estimates the extent of occurrence, or range, to be 11,500,000 km2. [9]

This species occurs as a vagrant in Iceland, Ireland, Faeroes, and the UK. [4] [14]

Conservation status

The IUCN classifies the black-and-white warbler as Least Concern due to its large range and population size. However, its population is decreasing. [9] Habitat loss and degradation, especially forest fragmentation, are the main factors contributing to the species' decline. If habitat loss continues, in either or both summer or wintering habitat, the species may continue to decline in the future. [15] [16] Pesticides such as fenitrothion and phosphamidon have contributed to the species' decline in the 1970s, [17] and others such as chlorinated hydrocarbons may continue to have an effect. [3]

Behaviour

Vocalization

Breeding male Black-and-white-warbler-1.jpg
Breeding male

The black-and-white warbler has a high-pitched song, described as a repeating wee-see that is repeated at least 6 times in succession. It has a chip call as well as a seet-seet call that is sometimes given in flight. [4]

Its song is a high see wee-see wee-see wee-see wee-see wee-see or weesa weesa weetee weetee weetee weet weet weet. It has two calls, a hard tick and a soft, thin fsss. [2] [6]

Diet

This bird feeds on insects and spiders, and, unlike other warblers, forages like a nuthatch, moving up and down tree trunks and along branches. [6]

The black-and-white warbler feeds in a manner similar to a nuthatch or a creeper. It forages on tree trunks and limbs to feed on insects below the bark's surface. [8] Its short legs and long hind toe are adaptations to this foraging method. [8] The black-and-white warbler is unique among warblers in its time spent foraging on tree trunks and inner branches. [3] This bird also gleans, like many warblers, for insects. [4] Its diet is composed of insects and other arthropods, including lepidopteran larvae, beetles, ants, and spiders. [18] During migration and breeding, this warbler relies heavily on lepidopteran larvae. [19]

During migration, the black-and-white warbler sometimes joins mixed flocks to feed. [8]

Reproduction

It breeds in broadleaved or mixed forest, preferably in wetter areas. Black-and-white warblers nest on the ground, laying 4–5 eggs in a cup nest. [2]

The black-and-white warbler is of the first warblers to arrive to its spring breeding grounds. [8] In the southernmost range of its breeding habitat, it can begin breeding mid-April. Males are territorial and defend their territory, both by singing and chasing competitors away. When a female arrives in a male's territory, he pursues her in an effort to breed. The male may display by flapping his wings. [3]

Black-and-white warbler visits Central Park in New York City Black and White Warbler in Central Park.jpg
Black-and-white warbler visits Central Park in New York City

The nest is cup-shaped, often located on the ground among roots or against a tree, or in crevices on tree stumps. The species prefers to nest in damp areas. The nest is constructed with grassy material, bark, and dry leaves, and lined with softer material such as moss and hair. The female is responsible for most of the nest-building. [3] The female lays 4-5 eggs, [2] which are light brown and speckled with darker brown. The female begins incubating once the last or second-to-last egg is laid. Incubation lasts 10 to 12 days, and is done solely by the female. During incubation, the female is sometimes fed by the male.

Both parents care for the nestlings. The young fledge after 8 to 12 days, and stay around the nest while they improve their flight ability. During this time, the parents remain nearby. [3]

This species generally produces one brood per year. [20]

Black-and-white warbler nests are sometimes parasitized by the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). [3] [8]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-rumped warbler</span> Species of bird

The yellow-rumped warbler is a regular North American bird species that can be commonly observed all across the continent. Its extensive distribution range connects both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U.S. as well as Canada and Central America, with the population concentrating in the continent's northern parts during the breeding season and migrating southwards to southern North and Central America in Winter. The species generally prefers coniferous forests or mixed coniferous-deciduous forests as its breeding habitat, while during the winter it can be found inhabiting more open areas such as shrublands that offer food resources. The diet of the yellow-rumped warbler is based primarily on insects, though the species does eat fruits such as juniper berries as well, especially in winter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Audubon's warbler</span> Species of bird

Audubon's warbler is a small bird of the family Parulidae. At one time considered a distinct species, discovery of a hybrid zone between it and the myrtle warbler in 1973 has led to it being classified as a subspecies of the yellow-rumped warbler.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape May warbler</span> Species of bird

The Cape May warbler is a species of New World warbler. It breeds in northern North America. Its breeding range spans all but the westernmost parts of southern Canada, the Great Lakes region, and New England. It is migratory, wintering in the West Indies. This species is a very rare vagrant to western Europe, with two records in Britain as of October 2013. The English name refers to Cape May, New Jersey, where George Ord collected the specimen later described by Alexander Wilson. This species was not recorded again in Cape May for another 100 years, although it is now known as an uncommon migrant there.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackburnian warbler</span> Species of bird

The Blackburnian warbler is a small New World warbler. They breed in eastern North America, from southern Canada, westwards to the southern Canadian Prairies, the Great Lakes region and New England, to North Carolina.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackpoll warbler</span> Species of bird

The blackpoll warbler is a New World warbler. Breeding males are mostly black and white. They have a prominent black cap, white cheeks, and white wing bars. The blackpoll breeds in forests of northern North America, from Alaska throughout most of Canada, to the Adirondack Mountains of New York as well as New England in the Northeastern United States. They are a common migrant throughout much of North America. In fall, they fly south to the Greater Antilles and the northeastern coasts of South America in a non-stop long-distance migration over open water, averaging 2,500 km (1,600 mi), one of the longest-distance non-stop overwater flights ever recorded for a migratory songbird. Rare vagrants to western Europe, they are one of the more frequent transatlantic passerine wanderers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chestnut-sided warbler</span> Species of bird

The chestnut-sided warbler is a New World warbler. They breed in eastern North America and in southern Canada westwards to the Canadian Prairies. They also breed in the Great Lakes region and in the eastern United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Magnolia warbler</span> Species of bird

The magnolia warbler is a member of the wood warbler family Parulidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bay-breasted warbler</span> Species of bird

The bay-breasted warbler is a small species of songbird in the New World warbler family, Parulidae. It is one of thirty-four species in the diverse genus Setophaga. Like all songbirds, or passerines, the species is classified in the order Passeriformes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern parula</span> Species of bird

The northern parula is a small New World warbler. It breeds in eastern North America from southern Canada to Florida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Louisiana waterthrush</span> Species of bird

The Louisiana waterthrush is a New World warbler, that breeds in eastern North America and winters in the West Indies and Central America. Plain brown above, it is white below, with black streaks and with buff flanks and undertail, distinguishing it from the closely related northern waterthrush. The habitats it prefers are streams and their surroundings, and other wet areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American redstart</span> Species of bird

The American redstart is a New World warbler. It is unrelated to the Old World (common) redstart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden-winged warbler</span> Species of bird

The golden-winged warbler is a New World warbler. It breeds in southeastern and south-central Canada and in the Appalachian Mountains in northeastern to north-central United States. The majority (~70%) of the global population breeds in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Manitoba. Golden-winged warbler populations are slowly expanding northwards, but are generally declining across its range, most likely as a result of habitat loss and competition/interbreeding with the very closely related blue-winged warbler, Vermivora cyanoptera. Populations are now restricted to two regions: the Great Lakes and the Appalachian Mountains. The Appalachian population has declined 98% since the 1960s and is significantly imperiled. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been petitioned to list the species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 and is currently reviewing all information after issuing a positive finding. Upon review, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found that the petition to list the species as endangered or threatened presents "substantial scientific or commercial information indicating that listing the golden-winged warbler may be warranted."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-throated blue warbler</span> Species of bird

The black-throated blue warbler is a small passerine bird of the New World warbler family. Its breeding ranges are located in the interior of deciduous and mixed coniferous forests in eastern North America. Over the cooler months, it migrates to islands in the Caribbean and Central America. It is very rarely found in western Europe, where it is considered to be a non-indigenous species. The black-throated blue warbler is sexually dimorphic; the adult male has a black face and cheeks, deep blue upperparts and white underparts, while the adult female is olive-brown above and light yellow below.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cerulean warbler</span> Species of bird

The cerulean warbler is a small songbird in the family Parulidae. It is a long-distance migrant, breeding in eastern North American hardwood forests. In the non-breeding season, it winters on the eastern slope of the Andes in South America, preferring subtropical forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kirtland's warbler</span> Species of bird

Kirtland's warbler, also known in Michigan by the common name jack pine bird, or the jack pine warbler, is a small songbird of the New World warbler family (Parulidae). Nearly extinct just 50 years ago, populations have recovered due to the conservation efforts of Phil Huber and the U.S. Forest Service. It requires large areas, greater than 160 acres, of dense young jack pine for its breeding habitat. This habitat was historically created by wildfire, but today is created through the harvest of mature jack pine, and planting of jack pine seedlings.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Worm-eating warbler</span> Species of bird

The worm-eating warbler is a small New World warbler that breeds in the Eastern United States and migrates to southern Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central America for the winter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-throated gray warbler</span> Species of bird

The black-throated gray warbler or black-throated grey warbler is a passerine bird of the New World warbler family Parulidae. It is 13 cm (5.1 in) long and has gray and white plumage with black markings. The male has the bold black throat of its name, and black stripes on its head, as well as black streaks on its flanks; the female is a paler version of the male, with a white throat and less distinct black markings on the flanks and wings. It breeds in western North America from British Columbia to New Mexico, and winters in Mexico and the southwestern United States. The habitats it prefers are coniferous and mixed forests and scrubland, especially those with pinyon pines, junipers, sagebrush, and oaks. Its nest is an open cup of plant fibers lined with feathers, built a few metres from the ground in the branches of a tree or shrub. Three to five eggs are laid, and young are fed by both parents. Common in its breeding range, it does not seem to be seriously threatened by human activities, unlike many migratory warblers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Townsend's warbler</span> Species of bird

Townsend's warbler is a small songbird of the New World warbler family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Grace's warbler</span> Species of bird

Grace's warbler is a small New World warbler that specializes in pine woods.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elfin woods warbler</span> Small bird of the New World warbler family endemic to Puerto Rico

The elfin woods warbler is a species of bird endemic to Puerto Rico, where it is local and uncommon. Discovered in 1968 and described in 1972, it is the most recently described New World warbler.

References

  1. BirdLife International (2016). "Mniotilta varia". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T22721758A94729210. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22721758A94729210.en . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Curson, Jon; Quinn, David; Beadle, David (1994). New World Warblers. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 158–159. ISBN   978-0-7136-3932-2.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Kricher, John C. (1995). "Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia)". The Birds of North America Online. doi:10.2173/bna.158.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Dunn, Jon; Garrett, Kimball (1997). A field guide to warblers of North America. National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, Roger Tory Peterson Institute. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. pp. 411–418. ISBN   978-0395783214. OCLC   36549138.
  5. "Black-and-white Warbler Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  6. 1 2 3 Sibley, David Allen (2000). The Sibley Guide to Birds. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p.  446. ISBN   978-0-679-45122-8.
  7. Willems, Tomas; de Boer, Marijke N.; Saulino, James T. (September 2017). "Offshore surprises: new at-sea bird records for Suriname (2013–2015)" (PDF). Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 25 (3): 202. doi: 10.1007/BF03544397 . Retrieved 3 November 2021.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Harrison, Hal H. (1984). Wood warblers' world. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp.  205–211. ISBN   978-0671477981. OCLC   10430019.
  9. 1 2 3 IUCN (2016). "Mniotilta varia: BirdLife International". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2016-3.rlts.t22721758a94729210.en .
  10. Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London, United Kingdom: Christopher Helm. pp. 257, 398. ISBN   978-1-4081-2501-4.
  11. Sherry, Thomas W.; Johnson, Matthew D.; Williams, Kelly A.; Kaban, Jordana D.; McAvoy, Caroline K.; Hallauer, Amanda M.; Rainey, Shannon; Xu, Sen (2016). "Dietary opportunism, resource partitioning, and consumption of coffee berry borers by five species of migratory wood warblers (Parulidae) wintering in Jamaican shade coffee plantations". Journal of Field Ornithology. 87 (3): 273–292. doi: 10.1111/jofo.12160 . ISSN   1557-9263.
  12. Anderson, K.S.; Maxfield, H.K. (1967). "Warbler returns from southeastern Massachusetts". Bird-Banding. 43 (3): 218–233. doi:10.2307/4511388. JSTOR   4511388.
  13. Skutch, A. F. (1971). A naturalist in Costa Rica. University of Florida Press.
  14. Ed Betteridge (21 September 2023). "Sighting". Birda. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  15. Galli, Anne E.; Leck, Charles F.; Forman, Richard T. T. (1976). "Avian Distribution Patterns in Forest Islands of Different Sizes in Central New Jersey". The Auk. 93 (2): 356–364. JSTOR   4085050.
  16. Whitcomb, B. L.; Whitcomb, R. F.; Bystrak, D. (1977). "Long-term turnover and effects of selective logging on the avifauna of forest fragments". Am. Birds. 31: 17–23.
  17. Pearce, P. A.; Peakall, D. B.; Erskine, A. J. (1976). "Impact on forest birds of the 1975 spruce budworm spray operation in New Brunswick". Can. Wildl. Serv. Progress Note 62.
  18. Bent, A. C. (1953). "Life histories of North American wood warblers". U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 203.
  19. Graber, J. W.; Graber, R. R. (1983). "Feeding rates of warblers in spring". Condor. 85 (2): 139–150. doi:10.2307/1367247. JSTOR   1367247.
  20. Peck, George K.; James, Ross D. (1983). Breeding birds of Ontario : nidiology and distribution . Toronto: ROM. ISBN   978-0888542885. OCLC   10850118.