Black vulture

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Black vulture
Black vulture (Coragyps atratus brasiliensis) Peten.jpg
C. a. brasiliensis
Peten, Guatemala
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Cathartiformes
Family: Cathartidae
Genus: Coragyps
Species:
C. atratus
Binomial name
Coragyps atratus
(Bechstein, 1793)
Subspecies
  • C. a. atratus Bechstein , 1793
    North American black vulture
  • C. a. foetens Lichtenstein , 1817
    Andean black vulture
  • C. a. brasiliensis Bonaparte , 1850
    South American black vulture
AmericanBlackVultureMap.png
Approximate range of the black vulture (note: range throughout the West Indies is erroneous)[ image reference needed ]
Synonyms

Vultur atratusBechstein, 1793

The black vulture (Coragyps atratus), also known as the American black vulture, Mexican vulture, zopilote, urubu, or gallinazo, is a bird in the New World vulture family whose range extends from the southeastern United States to Perú, Central Chile and Uruguay in South America. Although a common and widespread species, it has a somewhat more restricted distribution than its compatriot, the turkey vulture, which breeds well into Canada and all the way south to Tierra del Fuego. It is the only extant member of the genus Coragyps, which is in the family Cathartidae. Despite the similar name and appearance, this species is not closely related to the Eurasian black vulture, an Old World vulture, of the family Accipitridae (which includes raptors like the eagles, hawks, kites, and harriers). For ease of locating animal corpses (their main source of sustenance), black vultures tend to inhabit relatively open areas with scattered trees, such as chaparral, in addition to subtropical forested areas and parts of the Brazilian pantanal.

With a wingspan of 1.5 m (4.9 ft), the black vulture is an imposing bird, though relatively small for a vulture, let alone a raptor. It has black plumage, a featherless, grayish-black head and neck, and a short, hooked beak. These features are all evolutionary adaptations to life as a scavenger; their black plumage stays visibly cleaner than that of a lighter-colored bird, the bare head is designed for easily digging inside animal carcasses, and the hooked beak is built for stripping the bodies clean of meat. The absence of head-feathers helps the birds stay clean and remain (more or less) free of animal blood and bodily fluids, which could become problematic for the vultures and attract parasites; most vultures are known to bathe after eating, provided there is a water source. [2] This water source can be natural or man-made, such as a stream or a livestock water tank.

The black vulture is a scavenger and feeds on carrion, but will also eat eggs, small reptiles, or small newborn animals (livestock such as cattle, or deer, rodents, rabbits, etc.), albeit very rarely. They will also opportunistically prey on extremely weakened, sick, elderly, or otherwise vulnerable animals. In areas populated by humans, it also scavenges at dumpster sites and garbage dumps. It finds its meals either by using its keen eyesight or by following other (New World) vultures, which all possess a keen sense of smell. Lacking a syrinx—the vocal organ of birds—its only vocalizations are grunts or low hisses. It lays its eggs in caves, in cliffside rock crevasses, dead and hollow trees or, in the absence of predators, on the bare ground, generally raising two chicks each year. The parents feed their young by regurgitation from their crop, an additional digestive organ unique to birds, used for storing excess food; their “infant formula”, of sorts, is thus called “crop milk”. In the United States, the vulture receives legal protection under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 despite the fact it does not migrate whatsoever. This vulture also appeared in Mayan codices.

Taxonomy

Black vulture pair feeding on a mule deer head. Plate 106 from The Birds of America by John James Audubon. 106 Black Vulture or Carrion Crow.jpg
Black vulture pair feeding on a mule deer head. Plate 106 from The Birds of America by John James Audubon.

The American naturalist William Bartram wrote of the black vulture in his 1791 book Bartram's Travels , calling it Vultur atratus "black vulture" or "carrion crow". [3] Bartram's work has been rejected for nomenclatoríal purposes by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature as the author did not consistently use the system of binomial nomenclature. [4] The German ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein formally described the species using the same name in 1793 in his translation of John Latham's A General Synopsis of Birds. [5] [6] The common name "vulture" is derived from the Latin word vulturus, which means "tearer" and is a reference to its feeding habits. [7] The species name, ātrātus, means "clothed in black", from the Latin āter 'dull black'. [8]

Vieillot defined the genus Catharista in 1816, listing as its type C. urubu. [9] French naturalist Emmanuel Le Maout placed in its current genus Coragyps (as C. urubu) in 1853. [10] Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire has been listed as the author in the past, but he did not publish any official description. [11] The genus name means "raven-vulture", [12] from a contraction of the Greek corax/κόραξ and gyps/γὺψ for the respective birds. [13]

The American Ornithologists' Union used the name Catharista atrata initially, before adopting Vieillot's name (Catharista urubu) in their third edition. [14] By their fourth edition, they had adopted the current name. [15]

The black vulture is basal (the earliest offshoot) to a lineage that gave rise to the turkey vulture and greater and lesser yellow-headed vultures, diverging around 12 million years ago. [16]

Martin Lichtenstein described C. a. foetens, the Andean black vulture, in 1817, and Charles Lucien Bonaparte described C. a. brasiliensis, from Central and South America, in 1850 on the basis of smaller size and minor plumage differences. [17] However it has been established that the change between the three subspecies is clinal (that is, there is no division between the subspecies), [18] and hence they are no longer recognised. [19]

"Black vulture" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC). [19] "American black vulture" is also commonly used, [18] and in 2007 the South American Classification Committee (SACC) of the American Ornithological Society unsuccessfully proposed it to be the official name of the species. [20]

Evolutionary history of Coragyps

C. occidentalis fossil Coragyps occidentalis.jpg
C. occidentalis fossil

From the Early to the Late Pleistocene, a prehistoric species of black vulture, C. occidentalis, known as the Pleistocene black vulture or—somewhat in error—the "western black vulture", occurred across the present species' range. This bird did not differ much from the black vulture of today except in size; it was some 10–15% larger, and had a relatively flatter and wider bill. [21] It filled a similar ecological niche as the living form but fed on larger animals, [22] and was previously thought to have evolved into it by decreasing in size during the last ice age. [23] [24] However, a 2022 genetic study found C. occidentalis to be nested within the South American clade of black vultures; C. occidentalis had evolved from the modern black vulture about 400,000 years ago and developed a larger and more robust body size when it colonized high-altitude environments. [25] C. occidentalis may have interacted with humans; a subfossil bone of the extinct species was found in a Paleo-Indian to Early Archaic (9000–8000 years BCE) midden at Five Mile Rapids near The Dalles, Oregon. [26]

Fossil (or subfossil) black vultures cannot necessarily be attributed to the Pleistocene or the recent species without further information: the same size variation found in the living bird was also present in its larger prehistoric relative. Thus, in 1968, Hildegarde Howard separated the Mexican birds as C. occidentalis mexicanus as opposed to the birds from locations farther north (such as Rancho La Brea) which constituted the nominate subspecies C. o. occidentalis. [27] The southern birds were of the same size as present-day northern black vultures and can only be distinguished by their somewhat stouter tarsometatarsus and the flatter and wider bills, and even then only with any certainty if the location where the fossils were found is known. [28] As the Pleistocene and current black vultures form an evolutionary continuum rather than splitting into two or more lineages, some include the Pleistocene taxa in C. atratus, which is further affirmed by phylogenetic studies indicating that it forms a clade within the South American C. atratus. [24] [25]

An additional fossil species from the Late Pleistocene of Cuba, C. seductus, was described in 2020. [29]

Description

The black vulture is a fairly large scavenger, measuring 56–74 cm (22–29 in) in length, with a 1.33–1.67 m (52–66 in) wingspan. [30] Weight for black vultures from North America and the Andes ranges from 1.6 to 3 kg (3.5 to 6.6 lb) but in the smaller vultures of the tropical lowlands it is 1.18–1.94 kg (2.6–4.3 lb). [31] [32] 50 vultures in Texas were found to average 2.15 kg (4.7 lb) while 119 birds in Venezuela were found to average 1.64 kg (3.6 lb). [33] The extended wing bone measures 38.6–45 cm (15.2–17.7 in), the shortish tail measures 16–21 cm (6.3–8.3 in) and the relatively long tarsus measures 7–8.5 cm (2.8–3.3 in). [32] Its plumage is mainly glossy black. The head and neck are featherless and the skin is dark gray and wrinkled. [34] The iris of the eye is brown and has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid. [35] The legs are grayish white, [36] while the two front toes of the foot are long and have small webs at their bases. [37]

The nostrils are not divided by a septum, but rather are perforate; from the side one can see through the beak. [38] The wings are broad but relatively short. The bases of the primary feathers are white, producing a white patch on the underside of the wing's edge, which is visible in flight. The tail is short and square, barely reaching past the edge of the folded wings. [34]

A leucistic C. atratus brasiliensis was observed in Piñas, Ecuador in 2005. It had white plumage overall, with only the tarsus and tail as well as some undertail feathers being black. It was not an albino as its skin seemed to have had the normal, dark color and it was part of a flock of some twenty normally plumaged individuals. [39]

Distribution and habitat

The black vulture has a Nearctic and Neotropic distribution. [40] Its range includes the mid-Atlantic States, the southernmost regions of the Midwestern United States, the southern United States, Mexico, Central America and most of South America. [41] It is usually a permanent resident throughout its range, although birds at the extreme north of its range may migrate short distances, and others across their range may undergo local movements in unfavourable conditions. [42] In South America, its range stretches to Peru, central Chile and Uruguay. [43] It also is found as a vagrant on the islands of the Caribbean. [1] It prefers open land interspersed with areas of woods or brush. [44] It is also found in moist lowland forests, shrublands and grasslands, wetlands and swamps, pastures, and heavily degraded former forests. [1] Preferring lowlands, it is rarely seen in mountainous areas. It is usually seen soaring or perched on fence posts or dead trees. [36]

Ecology and behavior

The black vulture soars high while searching for food, holding its wings horizontally when gliding. It flaps in short bursts which are followed by short periods of gliding. [45] Its flight is less efficient than that of other vultures, as the wings are not as long, forming a smaller wing area. [46] In comparison with the turkey vulture, the black vulture flaps its wings more frequently during flight. It is known to regurgitate when approached or disturbed, which assists in predator deterrence and taking flight by decreasing its takeoff weight. Like all New World vultures, the black vulture often defecates on its own legs, using the evaporation of the water in the feces and/or urine to cool itself, a process known as urohidrosis. [37] It cools the blood vessels in the unfeathered tarsi and feet, and causes white uric acid to streak the legs. Because it lacks a syrinx, the black vulture, like other New World vultures, has very few vocalization capabilities. [37] It is generally silent, but can make hisses and grunts when agitated or while feeding. The black vulture is gregarious, and roosts in large groups. [47] In areas where their ranges overlap, the black vulture will roost on the bare branches of dead trees alongside groups of turkey vultures. [46] The black vulture generally forages in groups; a flock of black vultures can easily drive a rival turkey vulture, which is generally solitary while foraging, from a carcass. [47]

Like the turkey vulture, this vulture is often seen standing in a spread-winged stance. [34] The stance is believed to serve multiple functions: drying the wings, warming the body, and baking off bacteria. This same behavior is displayed by other New World vultures, Old World vultures, and storks. [48]

Breeding

Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden Coragyps atratus MWNH 0717.JPG
Egg, Collection Museum Wiesbaden
Hatchlings Black Vulture hatchlings.jpg
Hatchlings

The timing of black vultures' breeding season varies with the latitude at which they live. In the United States, birds in Florida begin breeding as early as January, for example, while those in Ohio generally do not start before March. [32] In South America, Argentinian and Chilean birds begin egg-laying as early as September, while those further north on the continent typically wait until October. Some in South America breed even later than that—black vultures in Trinidad typically do not start until November, for example, and those in Ecuador may wait until February. [32] Pairs are formed following a courtship ritual which is performed on the ground: several males circle a female with their wings partially open as they strut and bob their heads. [34] They sometimes perform courtship flights, diving or chasing each other over their chosen nest site. [32]

The black vulture lays its eggs on the ground in a wooded area, a hollow log, or some other cavity, seldom more than 3 m (10 ft) above the ground. [34] While it generally does not use any nesting materials, it may decorate the area around the nest with bits of brightly colored plastic, shards of glass, or metal items such as bottle caps. [44] Clutch size is generally two eggs, though this can vary from one to three. The egg is oval and on average measures 7.56 cm × 5.09 cm (2.98 in × 2.00 in). The smooth, gray-green, bluish, or white shell is variably blotched or spotted with lavender or pale brown around the larger end. [44] Both parents incubate the eggs, which hatch after 28 to 41 days. [44] Upon hatching, the young are covered with a buffy down, unlike turkey vulture chicks which are white. [49] Both parents feed the nestlings, regurgitating food at the nest site. The young remain in the nest for two months, and after 75 to 80 days they are able to fly skillfully. [46] Predation of black vultures is relatively unlikely, though eggs and nestlings are readily eaten if found by mammalian predators such as raccoons, coatis and foxes. Due to its aggressiveness and size, few predators can threaten the fully-grown vulture. However, various eagles may kill vultures in conflicts and even the ornate hawk-eagle, a slightly smaller bird than the vulture, has preyed on adult black vultures, as well as the two eagles native to North America (north of Mexico). [32] [50] [51]

Feeding

In natural settings, the black vulture eats mainly carrion. [49] In areas populated by humans, it may scavenge at garbage dumps for refuse, offal and other discarded edible waste, but also takes eggs, fruit (both ripe and rotting), fish, dung and ripe/decomposing plant material and can kill or injure newborn or incapacitated mammals. [52] [53] Like other vultures, it plays an important role in the ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease. [54] The black vulture locates food either by sight or by following New World vultures of the genus Cathartes to carcasses. [54] These vultures—the turkey vulture, the lesser yellow-headed vulture, and the greater yellow-headed vulture—forage by detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals. [55] Their heightened ability to detect odors allows them to search for carrion below the forest canopy. [48] The black vulture is aggressive when feeding, and may chase the slightly larger turkey vulture from carcasses. [49]

The black vulture also occasionally feeds on livestock or deer. It is the only species of New World vulture which preys on cattle. It occasionally harasses cows which are giving birth, but primarily preys on newborn calves, as well as lambs and piglets. [56] [32] In its first few weeks, a calf will allow vultures to approach it. The vultures swarm the calf in a group, then peck at the calf's eyes, or at the nose or the tongue. The calf then goes into shock and is killed by the vultures. [57]

Black vultures have sometimes been observed removing and eating ticks from resting capybaras and Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii). [58] [59] These vultures are known to kill baby herons and seabirds on nesting colonies, and feed on domestic ducks, small birds, skunks, opossums, other small mammals, lizards, small snakes, young turtles and insects. [60] [32] Like other birds with scavenging habits, the black vulture presents resistance to pathogenic microorganisms and their toxins. Many mechanisms may explain this resistance. Anti-microbial agents may be secreted by the liver or gastric epithelium, or produced by microorganisms of the normal microbiota of the species. [61]

It receives special legal protections under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 in the United States, [62] by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds in Canada, [63] and by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals in Mexico. [63] In the United States it is illegal to take, kill, or possess black vultures without a permit and violation of the law is punishable by a fine of up to US$15,000 and imprisonment of up to six months. [64] It is listed as a species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. Populations appear to remain stable, and it has not reached the threshold of inclusion as a threatened species, which requires a decline of more than 30% in ten years or three generations. [1]

Relationship with humans

The black vulture is considered a threat by cattle ranchers due to its predation on newborn cattle. [65] The droppings produced by black vultures can harm or kill trees and other vegetation. [66] As a defense, the vultures also “regurgitate a reeking and corrosive vomit." [67]

The bird can be a threat to the safety of aerial traffic, especially when it congregates in large numbers in the vicinity of garbage dumps [68] —as is the case in the Rio de Janeiro Tom Jobim International Airport. [69]

The black vulture can be held in captivity, though the Migratory Bird Treaty Act only allows this in the case of animals which are injured or unable to return to the wild. [64]

The black vulture appears in a variety of Maya hieroglyphics in Mayan codices. It is normally connected with either death or as a bird of prey. The vulture's glyph is often shown attacking humans. This species lacks the religious connections that the king vulture has. While some of the glyphs clearly show the black vulture's open nostril and hooked beak, some are assumed to be this species because they are vulture-like but lack the king vulture's knob and are painted black. [70]

Black vultures are an important cultural symbol in Lima, Peru. [71] [72]

This vulture has appeared on two stamps: those of Suriname in 1990 and Nicaragua in 1994. [73]

Related Research Articles

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A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture. Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North and South America and consist of seven identified species, all belonging to the Cathartidae family. A particular characteristic of many vultures is a bald, unfeathered head. This bare skin is thought to keep the head clean when feeding, and also plays an important role in thermoregulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New World vulture</span> Family of birds

Cathartidae, known commonly as New World vultures or condors, are a family of birds of prey consisting of seven extant species in five genera. It includes five extant vultures and two extant condors found in warm and temperate areas of the Americas. They are known as "New World" vultures to distinguish them from Old World vultures, with which the Cathartidae does not form a single clade despite the two being similar in appearance and behavior as a result of convergent evolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkey vulture</span> Most widespread New World vulture

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hooded crow</span> Species of bird

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cinereous vulture</span> Species of bird

The cinereous vulture is a large raptor in the family Accipitridae and distributed through much of temperate Eurasia. It is also known as the black vulture, monk vulture and Eurasian black vulture. With a body length of 1.2 m, 3.1 m (10 ft) across the wings and a maximum weight of 14 kg (31 lb), it is the largest Old World vulture and largest member of the Accipitridae family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Northern shoveler</span> Species of bird

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">California condor</span> Large New World vulture, North America

The California condor is a New World vulture and the largest North American land bird. It became extinct in the wild in 1987 when all remaining wild individuals were captured, but has since been reintroduced to northern Arizona and southern Utah, the coastal mountains of California, and northern Baja California in Mexico. It is the only surviving member of the genus Gymnogyps, although four extinct members of the genus are also known. The species is listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as Critically Endangered, and similarly considered Critically Imperiled by NatureServe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andean condor</span> Species of bird

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">King vulture</span> Large bird found in Central and South America

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<i>Coragyps</i> Genus of New World vulture

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-throated gray warbler</span> Species of bird

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zone-tailed hawk</span> Species of bird

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesser yellow-headed vulture</span> Species of bird

The lesser yellow-headed vulture also known as the savannah vulture, is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be the same species as the greater yellow-headed vulture until they were split in 1964. It is found in Mexico, Central America, and South America in seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, swamps, and heavily degraded former forest. It is a large bird, with a wingspan of 150–165 cm (59–65 in). The body plumage is black, and the head and neck, which are featherless, are pale orange with red or blue areas. It lacks a syrinx, so therefore its vocalizations are limited to grunts or low hisses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater yellow-headed vulture</span> Species of bird

The greater yellow-headed vulture, also known as the forest vulture, is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be the same species as the lesser yellow-headed vulture until they were split in 1964. It is found in South America in tropical moist lowland forests. It is a fairly large bird, with a wingspan of 166–178 cm (65–70 in), a weight of 1.65 kilograms (3.6 lb) and a body length of 64–75 cm (25–30 in). The body plumage is black, and the head and neck, which are featherless, range in color from deep yellow to pale orange. It lacks a syrinx, and its vocalizations are therefore limited to grunts or low hisses.

Burnet Cave is an important archaeological and paleontological site located in Eddy County, New Mexico, United States within the Guadalupe Mountains about 26 miles west of Carlsbad.

<i>Vireo</i> (genus) Genus of birds

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<i>Coragyps occidentalis</i> Extinct species of New World vulture

Coragyps occidentalis, the Pleistocene black vulture, is an extinct species of New World vulture that lived throughout North and South America during the Pleistocene. It was formerly thought to be the ancestor to the modern black vulture, but is now thought to have evolved from it; the modern black vulture is paraphyletic with respect to it.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 BirdLife International (2016). "Coragyps atratus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016: e.T22697624A93624950. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22697624A93624950.en . Retrieved November 19, 2021.
  2. ↑ "Turkey vulture". State of Indiana Government. State of Indiana. August 4, 2022. Retrieved March 13, 2023.
  3. ↑ Bartram, William (1792) [1791]. Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida. London: printed by James and Johnson; Reprinted for J. Johnson. p. 285.
  4. ↑ Hemming, Francis, ed. (1957). "Opinion 447. Rejection for nomenclatorial purposes of the original edition published at Philadelphia in 1791 and of the editions published in London and Dublin respectively in 1792 of the work by William Bartram entitled "Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, east and west Florida, the Cherokee country, the extensive territories of the Muscogulges or Creek confederacy, and the country of the Chactaws", as being a work in which the author did not apply the principles of binominal nomenclature". Opinions and Declarations Rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Vol. 15, Part 12. London: International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature. pp. 211–224.
  5. ↑ Latham, John; Bechstein, Johann Matthäus (1793). Johann Lathams allgemeine Uebersicht der Vögel (in German). Vol. 1, Part 2. Nürnberg: A.C. Schneider and Weigel. p. 655, Note.
  6. ↑ Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1979). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 275.
  7. ↑ Holloway, Joel Ellis (2003). Dictionary of Birds of the United States: Scientific and Common Names. Timber Press. p. 59. ISBN   0-88192-600-0.
  8. ↑ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. pp. 63–64. ISBN   0-304-52257-0.
  9. ↑ Vieillot, Louis-Pierre (1816). Analyse d'une nouvelle ornithologie élémentaire (in French). Deterville. pp. 21–22.
  10. ↑ Le Maout, Emmanuel (1853), Histoire naturelle des oiseaux : suivant la classification de M. Isidore Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire; avec l'indication de leurs mœurs et de leurs rapports avec les arts, le commerce et l'agriculture, L. Curmer, p. 66
  11. ↑ Gregory, Steven M. S. (1998). "The correct citation of Coragyps (Cathartinae) and Ardeotis (Otididae)". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club . 118: 126–27.
  12. ↑ Ietaka, Taro. "Moving Beyond Common Names" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 4, 2005. Retrieved November 5, 2007.
  13. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford University Press. pp.  147, 387. ISBN   0-19-910207-4.
  14. ↑ American Ornithologists' Union (1910). Check-list of North American birds (3rd ed.). American Ornithologists' Union. p. 152.
  15. ↑ American Ornithologists' Union (1931). Check-list of North American birds (4th ed.). American Ornithologists' Union. p. 61.
  16. ↑ Johnson, Jeff A.; Brown, Joseph W.; Fuchs, Jerome; Mindell, David P. (2016). "Multi-locus phylogenetic inference among New World Vultures (Aves: Cathartidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution . 105: 193–199. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2016.08.025 . PMID   27601346.
  17. ↑ Blake, Emmet Reid (1953). Birds of Mexico: A Guide for Field Identification . University of Chicago Press. p.  267. ISBN   0-226-05641-4.
  18. 1 2 Houston, D., Kirwan, G.M. & Boesman, P. (2017). American Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/52943 on October 21, 2017).
  19. 1 2 Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2017). "New World vultures, Secretarybird, kites, hawks & eagles". World Bird List Version 7.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
  20. ↑ South American Classification Committee (2007). "Proposal (259) to South American Classification Committee: Change English name of Coragyps atratus to "American Black Vulture"". American Ornithological Society . Retrieved October 22, 2017.
  21. ↑ Fisher, Harvey L (1944). "The skulls of the Cathartid vultures" (PDF). Condor . 46 (6): 272–296. doi:10.2307/1364013. JSTOR   1364013 . Retrieved November 3, 2007.
  22. ↑ Hertel, Fritz (1995). "Ecomorphological indicators of feeding behavior in Recent and fossil raptors" (PDF). Auk . 12 (4): 890–903. doi:10.2307/4089021. hdl: 10211.3/138737 . JSTOR   4089021 . Retrieved November 3, 2007.
  23. ↑ Howard, Hildegarde (1962). "Bird Remains from a Prehistoric Cave Deposit in Grant County, New Mexico" (PDF). Condor . 64 (3): 241–242. doi:10.2307/1365205. JSTOR   1365205 . Retrieved November 3, 2007.
  24. 1 2 Steadman, David W; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Johnson, Eileen; Guzman, A. Fabiola (1994). "New Information on the Late Pleistocene Birds from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo Leon, Mexico" (PDF). Condor . 96 (3): 577–589. doi:10.2307/1369460. JSTOR   1369460 . Retrieved November 3, 2007.
  25. 1 2 Ericson, Per G. P.; Irestedt, Martin; Zuccon, Dario; Larsson, Petter; Tison, Jean-Luc; Emslie, Steven D.; Götherström, Anders; Hume, Julian P.; Werdelin, Lars; Qu, Yanhua (August 23, 2022). "A 14,000-year-old genome sheds light on the evolution and extinction of a Pleistocene vulture". Communications Biology . 5 (1): 857. doi:10.1038/s42003-022-03811-0. ISSN   2399-3642. PMC   9399080 . PMID   35999361.
  26. ↑ Miller, Loye (1957). "Bird Remains from a Prehistoric Cave Deposit in Grant County, New Mexico" (PDF). Condor . 59 (1): 59–63. doi:10.2307/1364617. JSTOR   1364617 . Retrieved November 3, 2007.
  27. ↑ Howard, Hildegarde (1968). "Limb measurements of the extinct vulture, Coragyps occidentalis". Papers of the Archaeological Society of New Mexico . 1: 115–127.
  28. ↑ Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Johnson, Eileen (2003). "Catálogo de los ejemplares tipo procedentes de la Cueva de San Josecito, Nuevo León, México ("Catalogue of the type specimens from San Josecito Cave, Nuevo León, Mexico")" (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas . 20 (1): 79–93. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 17, 2011. Retrieved November 3, 2007.
  29. ↑ Suárez, William (May 22, 2020). "The fossil avifauna of the tar seeps Las Breas de San Felipe, Matanzas, Cuba". Zootaxa . 4780 (1): zootaxa.4780.1.1. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4780.1.1. ISSN   1175-5334. PMID   33055754. S2CID   219510089.
  30. ↑ "Nature Guides". Enature.com. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved June 2, 2014.
  31. ↑ Black Vulture, Life History, All About Birds – Cornell Lab of Ornithology. allaboutbirds.org
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001). Raptors of the World. Helm Identification Guides. London: Christopher Helm Publishers. p. 305. ISBN   978-0-618-12762-7.
  33. ↑ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), ISBN   978-1-4200-6444-5.
  34. 1 2 3 4 5 Terres, J. K. (1980). The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York, NY: Knopf. p.  959. ISBN   0-394-46651-9.
  35. ↑ Fisher, Harvey L. (February 1942). "The Pterylosis of the Andean Condor". Condor . 44 (1): 30–32. doi:10.2307/1364195. JSTOR   1364195.
  36. 1 2 Peterson, Roger Tory (2001). A Field Guide to Western Birds. Houghton Mifflin Field Guides. p. 182. ISBN   0-618-13218-X.
  37. 1 2 3 Feduccia, J. Alan (1999). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press. p. 116. ISBN   0-226-05641-4.
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  40. ↑ Bull, John L; Levine, Emanuel (1998). Bull's Birds of New York State. Cornell University Press. p. 138. ISBN   0-8014-3404-1.
  41. ↑ Garcia, Lisa. "Black Vulture". The Natural History of the Chihuahuan Desert . University of Texas at El Paso . Retrieved September 13, 2016.
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  43. ↑ Hilty, Stephen L. (1977). A Guide to the Birds of Colombia. Princeton University Press. p. 88. ISBN   0-691-08372-X.
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  45. ↑ Robbins, C. S.; Bruun, B; Zim, H S (2001). Birds of North America: A Guide to Field Identification . St. Martin's Press. p.  66. ISBN   1-58238-090-2.
  46. 1 2 3 Fergus, Charles (2003). Wildlife of Virginia and Maryland Washington D.C. Stackpole Books. p. 172. ISBN   0-8117-2821-8.
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  48. 1 2 Snyder, Noel F. R. & Helen Snyder (2006). Raptors of North America: Natural History and Conservation . Voyageur Press. p.  45. ISBN   0-7603-2582-0.
  49. 1 2 3 Reader's Digest, ed. (2005). Book Of North American Birds. Reader's Digest. p. 11. ISBN   0-89577-351-1.
  50. ↑ Coleman, J. S.; Fraser, J.D. (1986). "Predation on black and turkey vultures". Wilson Bulletin . 98: 600–601.
  51. ↑ Stolen, E. D. (1996). "Black and turkey vulture interactions with bald eagles in Florida". Florida Field Naturalist . 24: 43–45.
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  53. ↑ Buckley, Neil J.; Kluever, Bryan M.; Driver, Robert; Rush, Scott A. (March 3, 2024). "Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus), version 2.0". Birds of the World.
  54. 1 2 Gomez, Luis G.; Houston, David C.; Cotton, Peter; Tye, Alan (1994). "The role of greater yellow-headed vultures Cathartes melambrotus as scavengers in neotropical forest". Ibis . 136 (2): 193–196. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1994.tb01084.x.
  55. ↑ Muller-Schwarze, Dietland (2006). Chemical Ecology of Vertebrates. Cambridge University Press. p. 350. ISBN   0-521-36377-2.
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  61. ↑ Carvalho, L. R.; et al. (2003). "Dominant culturable bacterial microbiota in the digestive tract of the American black vulture (Coragyps atratus Bechstein 1793) and search for antagonistic substances". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology . 34 (3): 218–224. doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822003000300007 .
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  71. ↑ "Drowning in rubbish, Lima sends out the vultures with GoPros". The Guardian. Retrieved June 19, 2020.
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  73. ↑ "Black Vulture". Bird Stamps. Archived from the original on November 17, 2000. Retrieved January 11, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
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