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The Apache are a group of culturally related Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States,which include the Chiricahua,Jicarilla,Lipan,Mescalero,Mimbreño,Ndendahe,Salinero,Plains and Western Apache. Distant cousins of the Apache are the Navajo,with whom they share the Southern Athabaskan languages. There are Apache communities in Oklahoma and Texas,and reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. Apache people have moved throughout the United States and elsewhere,including urban centers. The Apache Nations are politically autonomous,speak several different languages,and have distinct cultures.
Lipan Apache are a band of Apache,a Southern Athabaskan Indigenous people,who have lived in the Southwest and Southern Plains for centuries. At the time of European and African contact,they lived in New Mexico,Colorado,Oklahoma,Texas,and northern Mexico. Historically,they were the easternmost band of Apache. Early adopters of horse culture and peyotism,the Lipan Apache hunted bison and farmed.
Jicarilla Apache,one of several loosely organized autonomous bands of the Eastern Apache,refers to the members of the Jicarilla Apache Nation currently living in New Mexico and speaking a Southern Athabaskan language. The term jicarilla comes from Mexican Spanish meaning "little basket",referring to the small sealed baskets they used as drinking vessels. To neighboring Apache bands,such as the Mescalero and Lipan,they were known as Kinya-Inde.
The term Navajo Wars covers at least three distinct periods of conflict in the American West:the Navajo against the Spanish;the Navajo against the Mexican government;and the Navajo against the United States. These conflicts ranged from small-scale raiding to large expeditions mounted by governments into territory controlled by the Navajo. The Navajo Wars also encompass the widespread raiding that took place throughout the period;the Navajo raided other tribes and nearby settlements,who in return raided into Navajo territory,creating a cycle of raiding that perpetuated the conflict.
Ute are the Indigenous people of the Ute tribe and culture among the Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin. They had lived in sovereignty in the regions of present-day Utah and Colorado in the Southwestern United States for many centuries until European settlers seized their lands. The state of Utah is named after the Ute tribe.
The Ute Wars were a series of conflicts between the Ute people and the United States which began in 1849 and ended in 1923.
Comanche history is the story of the Native American (Indian) tribe which lived on the Great Plains of the present-day United States. In the 17th century the Eastern Shoshone people who became known as the Comanche migrated southward from Wyoming. In the 18th and 19th centuries the Comanche became the dominant tribe on the southern Great Plains. The Comanche are often characterized as "Lords of the Plains." They presided over a large area called Comancheria which they shared with allied tribes,the Kiowa,Kiowa-Apache,Wichita,and after 1840 the southern Cheyenne and Arapaho. Comanche power and their substantial wealth depended on horses,trading,and raiding. Adroit diplomacy was also a factor in maintaining their dominance and fending off enemies for more than a century. They subsisted on the bison herds of the Plains which they hunted for food and skins.
The Battle of Cieneguilla was an engagement of the Jicarilla War involving a group of Jicarilla Apaches,possibly their Ute allies,and the American 1st Cavalry Regiment on March 30,1854 near what is now Pilar,New Mexico. The Santa Fe Weekly Gazette reported that the action "was one of the severest battles that ever took place between American troops and Red Indians." It was one of the first significant battles between American and Apache forces and was also part of the Ute Wars,in which Ute warriors attempted to resist Westward expansion in the Four Corners region.
Lafayette Head was the first Lieutenant Governor of Colorado,serving from 1876 to 1879 under Governor John Long Routt.
Tammie Allen is a contemporary Native American potter,enrolled in the Jicarilla Apache Nation.
The Battle of Ojo Caliente Canyon,or simply the Battle of Ojo Caliente was an engagement of the Jicarilla War on April 8,1854. Combatants were Jicarilla Apache warriors,and their Ute allies,against the United States Army. The skirmish was fought as result of the pursuit of the Jicarilla after the Battle of Cieneguilla just over a week earlier.
The Jicarilla War began in 1849 and was fought between the Jicarilla Apaches and the United States Army in the New Mexico Territory. Ute warriors also played a significant role in the conflict as they were allied with the Jicarillas. The war started when the Apaches and Utes began raiding against settlers on the Santa Fe Trail. Eventually,in 1853,the U.S. Army retaliated which resulted in a series of battles and campaigns that ended in 1854 when a large military expedition managed to quell most of the violence. However,some minor skirmishing continued into 1855.
Fort Massachusetts was a military installation built in the San Luis Valley in Southern Colorado. It was located near the western bank of Ute Creek on the base of Mount Blanca and sat at an elevation of 8,000 feet,approximately 6 miles north of present-day Fort Garland.
The Fort Pueblo massacre was an attack that occurred on December 25,1854 against Fort Pueblo,Colorado,also known as El Pueblo,a settlement on the north side of the Arkansas River,1⁄2 mile west of the mouth of Fountain Creek,above the mouth of the Huerfano. The attack followed the deaths of Chief Chico Velasquez and others who died of smallpox after having been given blanket coats which the Muache believed had been deliberately contaminated. Coalition forces of over 100 Muache Utes and Jicarilla Dindes under the leadership of Chief Tierra Blanco led the attack against Fort Pueblo,killing 15 men,and capturing one woman,and two boys. Later on,the Muache killed the woman south of Pueblo at the Salt Creek. 2 women and 1 man survived the joint military operation,and the two boys who were captured,eventually returned.
El Pueblo,also called Fort Pueblo,was a trading post and fort near the present-day city of Pueblo in Pueblo County,Colorado. It operated from 1842 until 1854,selling goods,livestock,and produce. It was attacked in 1854,killing up to 19 men and capturing three people. A recreation of the fort is located at the El Pueblo History Museum at the site of the original fort.
The Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest are those in the current states of Colorado,Arizona,New Mexico,Utah,and Nevada in the western United States,and the states of Sonora and Chihuahua in northern Mexico. An often quoted statement from Erik Reed (1964) defined the Greater Southwest culture area as extending north to south from Durango,Mexico to Durango,Colorado and east to west from Las Vegas,Nevada to Las Vegas,New Mexico. Other names sometimes used to define the region include "American Southwest","Northern Mexico","Chichimeca",and "Oasisamerica/Aridoamerica". This region has long been occupied by hunter-gatherers and agricultural people.
Francisco Chacon was a Jicarilla Apache chief,leader in the Jicarilla uprising of 1854. He led the band that defeated the Davidson detachment of the First Regiment of Dragoons in the Battle of Cieneguilla:the Jicarilla,led by Francisco Chacon,their principal chief,and Flechas Rayadas,fought with flintlock rifles and arrows,killing 22 and a wounding another 36 of 60 dragoon soldiers,who then retreated to Ranchos de Taos lighter by 22 horses and most of the troops' supplies.
William Sluman Messervy was an American trader on the Santa Fe Trail who in 1850 was elected to represent the New Mexico Territory in the United States House of Representatives,but did not take his seat. He later served as Secretary of the Territory and in 1854 was acting Governor of New Mexico.
References
- ↑ Stanley, Francis (1967). The Jicarilla Apaches of New Mexico, 1540-1967. Pampa Print Shop. p. 74.
- 1 2 Racism in America: A Reader. Harvard University Press. August 6, 2020. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-674-25166-3.
- 1 2 Simpson, James Hervey (2003). Navaho Expedition: Journal of a Military Reconnaissance from Santa Fe, New Mexico to the Navaho Country Made in 1849. University of Oklahoma Press. p. xlii. ISBN 978-0-8061-3570-0.
- ↑ Monograph. Colorado Historical Society. 1985. p. 4.
- ↑ Brandon, William (1955). The Men and the Mountain: Frémont's Fourth Expedition. Morrow. p. 272.
- ↑ Quintana, Frances Leon (1991). Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier. F.L. Quintana. p. 135.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Flores, Devin; Norton, Holly. "Christmas 1854: The Tragedy that Ended El Pueblo". History Colorado. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
- ↑ Sundberg, Lawrence D. (May 10, 2015). Red Shirt: The Life and Times of Henry Lafayette Dodge. Sunstone Press. p. 319. ISBN 978-1-61139-237-1.
- 1 2 Oliva, Leo E. (1993). Fort Union and the Frontier Army in the Southwest. Division of History, National Park Service. p. 125.
- 1 2 Dunlay, Thomas W. (May 1, 2005). Kit Carson and the Indians. U of Nebraska Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-8032-6642-1.
- ↑ Stanley, Francis (1967). The Jicarilla Apaches of New Mexico, 1540-1967. Pampa Print Shop. p. 74.
- 1 2 Blackhawk, Ned (June 30, 2009). Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West. Harvard University Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-674-02099-3.
- ↑ Colorado Magazine. State Historical Society of Colorado, State Museum. 1958. p. 65.
- ↑ Quintana, Frances Leon (1991). Pobladores: Hispanic Americans of the Ute Frontier. F.L. Quintana. p. 135.