Chinese paddlefish

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Chinese paddlefish
A specimen of Psephurus gladius, Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences, Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology (4).jpg
Preserved specimens at Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, Wuhan, China
Status iucn3.1 EX.svg
Extinct  (2022)  (IUCN 3.1) [1]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Acipenseriformes
Family: Polyodontidae
Genus:† Psephurus
Günther, 1873
Species:
†P. gladius
Binomial name
†Psephurus gladius
(von Martens, 1862)
Synonyms [2] [3]
  • Polyodon gladiusvon Martens 1862
  • Spatularia (Polyodon) angustifoliumKaup 1862
  • Polyodon angustifolium(Kaup 1862)

The Chinese paddlefish (Psephurus gladius; simplified Chinese :白鲟; traditional Chinese :白鱘; pinyin :báixún: literal translation: "white sturgeon"), also known as the Chinese swordfish, is an extinct species of fish that was formerly native to the Yangtze and Yellow River basins in China. With records of specimens over three metres (ten feet) and possibly 7 m (23 ft) in length, it was one of the largest species of freshwater fish. It was the only species in the genus Psephurus and one of two recent species of paddlefish (Polyodontidae), the other being the American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula). It was an anadromous species, meaning that it spent part of its adult life at sea, while migrating upriver to spawn.

The Chinese paddlefish was officially declared extinct in 2022, with an estimated time of extinction to be by 2005, and no later than 2010, although it had become functionally extinct by 1993. [1] [4] The main cause of its extinction was the construction of the Gezhouba and Three Gorges dams, causing population fragmentation and blocking the anadromous spawning migration. Overfishing also played a significant role in its demise. Fishing of the Chinese paddlefish dates back centuries, with annual harvests reaching 25 tons by the 1970s. Since the 1990s, the species was officially listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as critically endangered, and was last seen alive in 2003. A 2019 paper including scientists from the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Institute found the species to be extinct. [4] It was unanimously agreed to be extinct by the Species Survival Commission Sturgeon Specialist Group of the IUCN on 15 September 2019, [5] with its conservation status being formally updated by the IUCN Red List in July 2022. [6]

Description

A specimen at Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences, Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology A specimen of Psephurus gladius, Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences, Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology (3).jpg
A specimen at Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences, Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology

The Chinese paddlefish had a white underbelly, and its back and head were grey. [7] Its dorsal and anal fins were situated considerably far back on the body. The paddle-like rostrum was narrow and pointed, and was between a quarter and up to a third of total body length. [8] Its eyes were small and round. [7] The tail fin was heterocercal (spine extending into the upper lobe), with the lower lobe being well developed. [8] The skull is more elongate and narrower than that of the American paddlefish, and lacks the sculpturing present on the skull bones of other paddlefish, with the stellate (star-shaped) bones on the rostrum less numerous than those of the American paddlefish. [9] The teeth were small, sharp, canine shaped and inward curling, and became proportionally smaller relative to the jaw during growth, and in mature adults were completely fused into the bone. Compared to Polyodon, the jaws were shorter, and had a proportionately narrower gape, and unlike the American paddlefish, but similar to fossil paddlefish, the upper jaw was not firmly attached to the braincase. [9] Like other paddlefish, the skeleton was largely cartilaginous. [10] The body lacked scales, [7] except for small scales in the caudal peduncle and caudal fin. [8]

Juveniles attained a weight of around 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2 to 3 lb) by their first winter and a length of 1 m (3 ft) and a weight of about 3.3 kg (7 lb 4 oz) by the time they were a year old. Beyond this length, proportional weight gain relative to body length dramatically increased, reaching a weight of about 12.5 kg (28 lb) by the time they were around 1.5 m (5 ft) long. They reached sexual maturity at a weight of around 25 kg (55 lb). [11] The maximum length of the Chinese paddlefish is often quoted as 7 m (23 ft), with this estimate apparently being given by C. Ping (1931), though according to Grande and Bemis (1991), specimens over three metres (ten feet) had not been definitively measured. [9] Ping recorded that fishermen in Nanjing caught a Chinese paddlefish with a length of 7 metres (23 ft) and a weight of 907 kilograms (2,000 lb). [12] FishBase and World Wide Fund for Nature gives a conservative maximum weight of 300–500 kg (660–1,100 lb). [13] [14] Female fish are suggested to have grown larger than male fish once sexually mature, though they grew at similar rates prior to this. [15] The lifespan has been estimated at 29–38 years, though the theoretical maximum lifespan is likely to have been significantly higher, as the estimate reflects anthropogenic impacts on the population. [4]

Taxonomy and evolutionary history

Scientific drawing of Psephurus gladius from 1868 (resource: Nouvelles Archives du Museum national d'histoire naturelle) Psephurus gladius.jpg
Scientific drawing of Psephurus gladius from 1868 (resource: Nouvelles Archives du Muséum national d'histoire naturelle )

The species was first named as a species of Polyodon by Eduard von Martens in 1862. [16] It was placed into a separate, monotypic genus by Albert Günther in 1873. [17] The species was also given a different name, Spatularia angustifolium by Johann Jakob Kaup also in 1862, [18] but this is considered a junior synonym of P. gladius. [8]

Paddlefish (Polyodontidae) are one of two living families of Acipenseriformes alongside sturgeons (Acipenseridae). The oldest records of Acipenseriformes date to the Early Jurassic, over 190 million years ago. The oldest paddlefish fossil is that of Protopsephurus from the Early Cretaceous of China, dating to around 120 million years ago. [19] The oldest representatives of the genus containing the American paddlefish (Polyodon) date to around 65 million years ago, from the beginning of the Paleocene. [20] Various molecular clock estimates have been given for the age of the divergence between the American and Chinese paddlefish, including 68 million years ago [21] 72 million years ago, [22] and 100 million years ago, [23] all dating to the middle to Upper Cretaceous.

Relationships of recent and fossil paddlefish genera, after Grande et al. (2002). [19]

Polyodontidae
Polyodontinae

†Psephurus Psephurus gladius.jpg

Distribution, habitat and ecology

A specimen of Psephurus gladius exhibited in the Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences of Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology A specimen of Psephurus gladius, Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences, Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology (1).jpg
A specimen of Psephurus gladius exhibited in the Museum of Hydrobiological Sciences of Wuhan Institute of Hydrobiology

The Chinese paddlefish was native to the Yangtze (Chang Jiang) River basin and its estuary at the East China Sea. Historically it was also recorded in the Yellow River basin (which is connected to the Yangtze by the Grand Canal) and its estuary at the Yellow Sea. [8] [24] [25] It primarily inhabited the large rivers, but sometimes travelled into large lakes. [1] Due to their anadromous nature, mature individuals were found in coastal waters of the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea; occasionally spring tides would bring individuals into the lower reaches of the Qiantang and Yong rivers of Zhejiang province. [11]

The species spent part of its life in the lower section of the Yangtze, including the brackish water of its estuary, but migrated upriver and into major tributaries to congregate for spawning, which occurred in spring, from mid-March to early April. One spawning site on the Jinsha River, located at the midpoint of the river, around 60 m (200 ft) from the riverbank, was around 500 m (1,600 ft) in length, and had a max water depth of 10 m (33 ft) and rapid water flow, with the bottom sediments in the lower reaches being shingly and in the upper reaches muddy/sandy. [11] A study on a sample of spawning Chinese paddlefish found that they were all at least 8 years old. [26] Females likely sexually matured later than males, and probably did not spawn every year, likely every other year or somewhat less frequently, like other acipenseriforms. [27] The ovaries of the female fish contained over 100,000 eggs, each approximately 2.7 mm (3⁄32 in) across. The developing zygotes and fry were restricted to the region of the Yangtze basin upstream of Luzhou in southeastern Sichuan, while yearlings and adults were widely distributed throughout the Yangtze river proper from the lower to upper reaches. [11]

Closeup of the tip of the rostrum, showing electrorecepting ampullae Chinese paddlefish paddle closeup.jpg
Closeup of the tip of the rostrum, showing electrorecepting ampullae

The fish was largely solitary, and occupied the lower-mid layers of the water column. Chinese paddlefish were noted for being strong swimmers. Unlike its relative the American paddlefish, which is a planktivorous filter feeder, the Chinese paddlefish was primarily piscivorous, mainly feeding on small to medium-sized fishes like anchovies ( Coilia), cyprinids ( Coreius, Rhinogobio ), gobies ( Gobius) as well as bagrid catfish and bothid flounders. Shrimp and crab were also eaten. [11] [8] The jaws, unlike the American paddlefish but like sturgeons and fossil paddlefish, were capable of protrusion, a form of cranial kinesis allowing them to move relative to the rest of the skull, with the upper jaw being able to thrust downwards and forwards in order to seize prey. [9] [28] Paddlefish, like other Acipenseriformes and several other groups of vertebrates, engage in passive electroreception (the sensing of external electric fields) using structures called ampullae that form an extension of the lateral line system of sensory organs. Passive electroreception (where electric fields are sensed but not generated, as in electric fish) is primarily used for detecting the weak electric fields generated by prey. [29] The head and rostrum of Chinese paddlefish, like those of other paddlefish, was densely packed with ampullae, indicating that enhancing electroreception was one of the rostrum's primary functions. [9]

Decline and extinction

The last records of Chinese paddlefish in the Yellow River basin and its estuary date back to the 1960s, although declines were realized between the 13th and 19th centuries. [24] [25] [30] Declines were significant throughout its primary range in the Yangtze basin, but annual captures of 25 tonnes continued into the 1970s. [4] In 1983, the Chinese government made fishing of the species illegal due to its decline in numbers. [26] The species was still being found in small numbers in the 1980s (for example, 32 were caught in 1985), and young were seen as recently as 1995. [1] Due to the rarity of the fish by the time it was realised that it was in peril, and the fact that the adult fish were difficult to keep in captivity, attempts to create a captive breeding stock failed. [26]

Depiction in the 17th-century work Searching the Mountains for Demons by Zheng Zhong ChinesePaddlefishZhengZhong.jpg
Depiction in the 17th-century work Searching the Mountains for Demons by Zheng Zhong

Since 2000, there have been only two confirmed sightings of the fish alive, both from the Yangtze basin: The first was a 3.3-metre (10 ft 10 in), 117-kilogram (258 lb) female caught at Nanjing in 2002 and the second a 3.52-metre (11 ft 7 in), 160 kg (350 lb) female accidentally caught at Yibin, Sichuan, on January 24, 2003, by fisherman Liu Longhua (刘龙华); [31] the former died despite attempts to save it and the latter was radio-tagged and released, but the tag stopped working after only 12 hours. [1] [32]

During a search conducted in the Yangtze basin from 2006 to 2008, a research team from the Chinese Academy of Fisheries Science in Jingzhou failed to catch any paddlefish, [32] but two possible specimens were recorded with hydroacoustic signals. [33] A comprehensive study published in 2019, including scientists from the Yangtze River Fisheries Research Institute, found that the species was certainly extinct, based on its absence from extensive capture surveys of the Yangtze between 2017 and 2018. The paper estimated that the species went extinct between 2005 and 2010, but became functionally extinct by 1993. [4] [34] [35] [36] The primary cause of its extinction was overfishing and the construction of dams along the Yangtze. The paddlefish was heavily overfished in all stages of growth from fry (which were easily captured by traditional fishing methods) to adult, which combined with the long generation time due to its slow maturation led to reduced sustainability of viable populations. Dam construction, notably the Gezhouba Dam, which became operational in 1981, and the Three Gorges Dam landlocked and divided populations and prevented the spawning migration. [1] The paper thus recommended the reclassification of the species as Extinct by the IUCN. [30] A similar recommendation was also made by the Species Survival Commission Sturgeon Specialist Group of the IUCN in September 2019. [5]

The official IUCN status of the species was formally updated to "extinct" in July 2022. [6] [1]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yangtze</span> Longest river in Asia

Yangtze or Yangzi is the longest river in Eurasia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows 6,300 km (3,915 mi) in a generally easterly direction to the East China Sea. It is the fifth-largest primary river by discharge volume in the world. Its drainage basin comprises one-fifth of the land area of China, and is home to nearly one-third of the country's population.

Sturgeon is the common name for the 28 species of fish belonging to the family Acipenseridae. The earliest sturgeon fossils date to the Late Cretaceous, and are descended from other, earlier acipenseriform fish, which date back to the Early Jurassic period, some 174 to 201 million years ago. They are one of two living families of the Acipenseriformes alongside paddlefish (Polyodontidae). The family is grouped into four genera: Acipenser, Huso, Scaphirhynchus, and Pseudoscaphirhynchus. Two species may be extinct in the wild, and one may be entirely extinct. Sturgeons are native to subtropical, temperate and sub-Arctic rivers, lakes and coastlines of Eurasia and North America. A Maastrichtian-age fossil found in Morocco shows that they also once lived in Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acipenseriformes</span> Order of fishes

Acipenseriformes is an order of basal ray-finned fishes that includes living and fossil sturgeons and paddlefishes (Acipenseroidei), as well as the extinct families Chondrosteidae and Peipiaosteidae. They are the second earliest diverging group of living ray-finned fish after the bichirs. Despite being early diverging, they are highly derived, having only weakly ossified skeletons that are mostly made of cartilage, and in modern representatives highly modified skulls.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paddlefish</span> Family of fishes related to sturgeons

Paddlefish are a family of ray-finned fish belonging to order Acipenseriformes, and one of two living groups of the order alongside sturgeons (Acipenseridae). They are distinguished from other fish by their elongated rostra, which are thought to enhance electroreception to detect prey. Paddlefish have been referred to as "primitive fish" because the Acipenseriformes are among the earliest diverging lineages of ray-finned fish, having diverged from all other living groups over 300 million years ago. Paddlefish are almost exclusively North American and Chinese, both extant and in the fossil record.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American paddlefish</span> Species of freshwater fish

The American paddlefish is a species of ray-finned fish. It is the last living species of paddlefish (Polyodontidae). This family is most closely related to the sturgeons; together they make up the order Acipenseriformes, which are one of the most primitive living groups of ray-finned fish. Fossil records of other paddlefish species date back 125 million years to the Early Cretaceous, with records of Polyodon extending back 65 million years to the early Paleocene. The American paddlefish is a smooth-skinned freshwater fish with an almost entirely cartilaginous skeleton and a paddle-shaped rostrum (snout), which extends nearly one-third its body length. It has been referred to as a freshwater shark because of its heterocercal tail or caudal fin resembling that of sharks, though it is not closely related. The American paddlefish is a highly derived fish because it has evolved specialised adaptations such as filter feeding. Its rostrum and cranium are covered with tens of thousands of sensory receptors for locating swarms of zooplankton, its primary food source. The only other species of paddlefish that survived to modern times was the Chinese paddlefish, last sighted in 2003 in the Yangtze River in China and considered to have gone extinct no later than 2010.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kaluga (fish)</span> Species of fish

The kaluga, also known as the river beluga, is a large predatory sturgeon found in the Amur River basin. With a maximum size of at least 1,000 kg (2,205 lb) and 5.6 m (18.6 ft), the kaluga is one of the biggest of the sturgeon family. Like the slightly larger beluga, it spends part of its life in salt water. Unlike the beluga, this fish has 5 major rows of dermal scutes and feeds on salmon and other fish in the Amur. They have gray-green to black backs with a yellowish green-white underbelly.

The Chinese sturgeon is a critically endangered member of the family Acipenseridae in the order Acipenseriformes. Historically, this anadromous fish was found in China, Japan, and the Korean Peninsula, but it has been extirpated from most regions due to habitat loss and overfishing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White sturgeon</span> Species of fish

White sturgeon is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous (migratory) fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.

<i>Chondrosteus</i> Extinct genus of fishes

Chondrosteus is a genus of extinct actinopterygian belonging to the family Chondrosteidae. It lived during the Sinemurian in what is now England. Chondrosteus is related to sturgeons and paddlefishes as part of the clade Acipenseriformes. Similar to sturgeons, the jaws of Chondrosteus were free from the rest of the skull. Its scale cover was reduced to the upper lobe of the caudal fin like in paddlefish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dabry's sturgeon</span> Species of fish

Dabry's sturgeon, also known as the Yangtze sturgeon, Changjiang sturgeon and river sturgeon, is a species of fish in the sturgeon family, Acipenseridae. It is endemic to China and today restricted to the Yangtze River basin, but was also recorded from the Yellow River basin in the past. It was a food fish of commercial importance. Its populations declined drastically, and since 1988, it was designated an endangered species on the Chinese Red List in Category I and commercial harvest was banned. It has been officially declared extinct in the wild by the IUCN as of July 21, 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian sturgeon</span> Species of fish

The Russian sturgeon, also known as the diamond sturgeon or Danube sturgeon, is a species of fish in the family Acipenseridae. It is found in Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Romania, Russia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine. It is also found in the Caspian Sea. This fish can grow up to about 235 cm (93 in) and weigh 115 kg (254 lb). Russian sturgeon mature and reproduce slowly, making them highly vulnerable to fishing. It is distinguished from other Acipenser species by its short snout with a rounded tip as well as its lower lip which is interrupted at its center.

Paleopsephurus is an extinct genus of paddlefish (Polyodontidae). At present the genus contains the single species Paleopsephurus wilsoni. The genus is known from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) aged Hell Creek Formation of Montana.

<i>Strongylosteus</i> Extinct genus of fishes

Strongylosteus is an extinct genus of prehistoric ray-finned fish that lived during the early Toarcian age of the Early Jurassic epoch. Its type species is Strongylosteus hindenburgi (monotypy). It is related to modern sturgeon and paddlefish (Acipenseroidei), but with a different kind of mouth than common species, made for hunting prey in open waters, with a strong lower jaw, similar to modern beluga sturgeon.

<i>Peipiaosteus</i> Extinct genus of fishes

Peipiaosteus is an extinct genus of prehistoric chondrostean ray-finned fish. Its fossils are found in the Early Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation, Pani Lake, Liaoning Province, China.

<i>Protopsephurus</i> Extinct genus of fishes

Protopsephurus is an extinct genus of paddlefish containing the single species Protopsephurus liui, known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning, northern China from the Barremian to Aptian ages of the Early Cretaceous period around 125-120 million years ago. It is currently the oldest and most basal paddlefish known.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chondrosteidae</span> Extinct family of fishes

Chondrosteidae is a family of extinct marine actinopterygian fishes, known from the Early Jurassic of Europe. They are closely related to modern sturgeons and paddlefish of the order Acipenseriformes, and are either placed as part of that order or the separate order Chondrosteiformes within the Chondrostei. Three genera are known, Chondrosteus, Gyrosteus, and Strongylosteus. Included species were of large size, with body lengths ranging from 2 metres (6.6 ft) up to 7 metres (23 ft). Their skeleton was largely made up of bones, but ossification was reduced compared to other ray-fins.

<i>Crossopholis</i> Extinct genus of fishes

Crossopholis is an extinct fish known from the early Eocene (Ypresian) of North America, approximately 52 million years ago. It is a close relative of the contemporary American paddlefish, belonging to the paddlefish family Polyodontidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sturddlefish</span> Hybrid fish

The sturddlefish is a hybrid of the American paddlefish and the Russian sturgeon, accidentally created by researchers in 2019 and announced in 2020. Obtaining living hybrids through breeding individuals from different families is unusual, especially given that the two species' last common ancestor lived 184 million years ago. The hybrids were created accidentally during attempts to induce gynogenesis, a type of parthenogenic reproduction where a sperm cell must be present to trigger embryogenesis but does not genetically contribute to the offspring. Hundreds of hybrid fish were created, of which about two-thirds survived over one month, and about 100 survived for one year. As of July 2020, all living hybrid fish are living in captivity at the research lab in Hungary. There are no current plans to create new sturddlefish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peipiaosteidae</span> Extinct family of fishes

Peipiaosteidae is an extinct family of fish, known from the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous of Asia. They are members of Acipenseriformes, related to sturgeons (Acipenseridae) and paddlefish (Polyodontidae). Fossils have been found in freshwater deposits in China, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia. They are generally considered either the earliest diverging group of Acipenseriformes, or the sister group to the clade containing Acipenseridae and Polyodontidae. At least Yanosteus was likely to have been piscivorous, based on a specimen of Lycoptera found in the mouth of one specimen.

Parapsephurus is an extinct genus of paddlefish in the family Polyodontidae. Currently the only known species in this genus is the type species, Parapsephurus willybemisi.P. willybemisi is known a nearly complete specimen from the Tanis locality of the Hell Creek Formation in North Dakota, USA, which dates to the late Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous, approximately 66 million years ago.

References

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  10. ↑ Miller, Michael J. (2005), LeBreton, Greg T. O.; Beamish, F. William H.; McKinley, R. Scott (eds.), "The Ecology and Functional Morphology of Feeding of North American Sturgeon and Paddlefish", Sturgeons and Paddlefish of North America, Fish & Fisheries Series, vol. 27, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 87–102, doi:10.1007/1-4020-2833-4_5, ISBN   978-1-4020-2832-8, archived from the original on 25 July 2022, retrieved 22 July 2022
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  12. ↑ Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the Science Society of China: Zoological series. Vol. 7. 1931. p. 189.
  13. ↑ Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2010). "Psephurus gladius" in FishBase . July 2010 version.
  14. ↑ "River of Giants: Giant Fish of the Mekong" (PDF). WWF for Nature. 2012.
  15. ↑ J. Ma, Z. Deng, X. Deng, M. Cai Age determination and growth of Chinese paddlefish Psephurus gladius Acta Hydrobiologica Sinica, 20 (2) (1996), pp. 150–159 (in Chinese with English abstract)
  16. ↑ "Über einen neuen Polyodon aus dem Yantsekiang und über die sogenannten Glaspolypen". Monatsberichte der Königlichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 1861 (pt. 1): 476–479. 2 May 1861. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
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  19. 1 2 Grande, Lance; Jin, Fan; Yabumoto, Yoshitaka; Bemis, William E. (8 July 2002). "Protopsephurus liui , a well-preserved primitive paddlefish (Acipenseriformes: Polyodontidae) from the Lower Cretaceous of China". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 22 (2): 209–237. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022[0209:PLAWPP]2.0.CO;2. ISSN   0272-4634. S2CID   86258128. Archived from the original on 16 July 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
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