Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia

Last updated

Christianity was one of the prominent monotheistic religions of pre-Islamic Arabia. The spread of Christianity into Arabia (which then included the Arabian Peninsula and the southern Levant) has historically been understood through the lenses of Christian literary texts and Byzantine historiography which typically describe the conversion of Arabs (often called "Saracens") to Christianity in the context of interactions with monks and other holy men, followed by renunciations of polytheism and idols. Many of these events are described as having been followed up with the construction of a church. Such descriptions appear in narratives of the bishop Ahudemmeh, the abbot Euthymius the Great, the ascetic Simeon Stylites, and the shrine of St. Sergius at Rusafa patronized by Al-Mundhir III, leader of the Christian Arab Ghassanid tribe. [1] Behind the literary nature of these (or parts of these) accounts, which are overwhelmingly Syriac and Iraq in origins, [2] Christianization emerged as a real phenomena in the Arabian peninsula, expanding from both the north due to the missionary activities of Syrian Christians and the south due to the entrenchment of Christianity with the Aksumite conquest of South Arabia. [3] Sites of Christian organization such as churches, martyria and monasteries were built and formed points of contact with Byzantine Christianity as well as allowed local Christian leaders to display their benefaction, communicate with the local population, and meet with various officials. [1] At present, it is believed that Christianity had attained a significant presence in Arabia by the fifth century at the latest, that its largest presence was in Southern Arabia (Yemen) prominently including the city of Najran, and that the Eastern Arab Christian community (along the Gulf coast) communicated with the Christianity of the Levant region through Syriac. [4]

Contents

Pre-Islamic Arabian Christians are also described in the Quran and, in recent years, archaeology has begun to play a significant role in the understanding of pre-Islamic Arabian Christianity. [5] Recent years have witnessed discoveries of Christian Paleo-Arabic inscriptions like the Yazid inscription from the northeastern Jordan and the Hima Paleo-Arabic inscriptions found 90 km north of Najran.

Levant and Northern Arabia

Evidence

Literature

In the Life of St Hilarion 16.1–12, composed by the theologian Jerome in the late fourth century, there is a description of St. Hilarion interacting with and helping convert Arabs to Christianity in Elusa, located southwest of the Dead Sea. There he met Arabs devoted to the cult of the god Venus. He was said to have freed many of their members from the possession of demons, after which they began to flock to him, asking to be blessed. They ceased their idol worship, and he helped lay out the plans for the construction of a church prior to leaving. [6]

According to the Life of Euthymius written by Cyril of Scythopolis, the abbot of Israel Euthymius the Great was approached by Aspebetos, an Arab belonging to the Persian army, to cure the ailment of his son. Upon being cured, he converted to Christianity and defected to the Romans along with his clan. [7]

Another figure, Ahudemmeh, was said to "visit all the camps of the Arabs, instructing and teaching them in many sermons .... establishing in every tribe a priest and a deacon ... and founding churches and naming them after tribal chiefs." [8]

The Letter of the Archimandrites dating to 569/570, composed in Greek but preserved in Syriac, demonstrates the presence and distribution of episcopal sees from its 137 Archimandrite signatories from the province of Roman Arabia. [9]

Material sources

Identifiably Christian Paleo-Arabic inscriptions from this region include the Jebel Usays inscription, Harran inscription, Zabad inscription, and the sixth-century Umm al-Jimal inscription. The latter was discovered located on the pillars base of a basalt slab in the northern part of the "Double Church" (so-named by the excavators) at the site of Umm al-Jimal. [10]

In 2021, the first discovery was made of a Christian inscription in the Safaitic script likely dating to the fourth century. This inscription invokes the help of Jesus to aid the maternal uncle of the inscriptions author. It also uses the grammatical form ʿĪsâ for the name Jesus for the first time, resembling its form in the Quran translations. [11]

A French-Saudi archaeological mission discovered a monastery in northwestern Arabia, at the site of Kilwa in the Tabuk region of Saudi Arabia. It is dedicated to the veneration of Saint Thecla, a disciple of Paul the Apostle. The establishment of this monastery likely belongs to the period of the eve of Islam, and its presence in the arid desert environment is an indication of the conversion of nomadic Arab tribes that had already taken place by that time. [12] [4]

Tribal conversion

Several tribes would convert to Christianity between the fourth and sixth centuries. Conversion was often a requirement for the kings or leaders of these tribes to become clients to the Roman Empire.

Around 400, Zokomos, the leader of the Salihids (the dominant Arab foederati of the Byzantine Empire in the fifth century) is reported by the historian Sozomen to have converted to Christianity. [13] [14] The Ghassanids whom had set up a kingdom in the Levant and northern Arabia, converted to Christianity during the reign of their leader Al-Harith ibn Jabalah (r. 528–569). John of Ephesus describes al-Harith as playing a role in the appointment of two bishops named Jacob Baradeus and Theodore, the latter being described as the bishop of ‟Hirta de Tayyaye” (the camp of the Saracens). Furthermore, it was said that al-Harith exercised authority in the "southern and [eastern] countries and in the whole of the desert and in Arabia and Palestine" (the reference to Arabia likely being a reference to Arabia Petraea). [15] The Ghassanids became some of the leading patrons of the Miaphysites and became sponsors of the martyr cult of St Sergius, which appealed strongly to Arabs. [16] In turn, the Miaphysite leaders took significant interest in sending missions into the Arabian peninsula. [17] Epigraphic evidence also suggests they sponsored a shrine of St Sergius and basilica in al-Ruṣāfa, likely during the leadership of Al-Mundhir, as well as a three-church complex in Nitl, which is near Madaba. Both Syriac Christianity [18] and the Ghassanids are linked to the three Paleo-Arabic inscriptions known from Syria, including the Jebel Usays inscription, the Harran inscription, and the Zabad inscription; in particular, the Zabad inscription is located at a martyrium at the Church of St. Sergius. [19] Several other inscriptions have been found at martyria whose sponsors have Arab names, including two dating to the fifth century from the site of Khanasir in northern Syria. [20]

The Lakhmid tribe converted under the reign of its final king of its Nasrid dynasty, Al-Nu'man III. [21] [22] In addition, there is evidence attesting to the conversions of the Taghlib and Tanūkhid tribes. [23]

Contact with non-Arabic Christianity

Multiple Christian cities north of the Arabian peninsula acted as contact points between speakers of Arabic and other languages. For example, Al-Hira, the capital of the Arab Lakhmid tribe located in southern Mesopotamia, acted as a meeting point between Arabic, Syriac, and Persian. [21] [24] In addition, it controlled trans-Arabian commerce crossing from Mesopotamia into southern Arabia. [25]

Another city, Petra, was a site of Aramaic-Arabic bilingualism. Furthermore, two of the three Arabic inscriptions from pre-Islamic Syria also contain a Greek text. [26]

Southern Arabia (Yemen)

Early missionary efforts

According to the Greek historian Philostorgius (d. 439) in his Ecclesiastical History 3.4, Constantius II, the successor of Constantine the Great, sent an Arian bishop known as Theophilus the Indian (also known as "Theophilus of Yemen") to Tharan Yuhanim, then the king of the South Arabian Himyarite Kingdom to convert the people to Christianity. According to the report, Theophilus succeeded in establishing three churches, one of them in the capital Zafar. [27] From the fifth and sixth centuries, the Miaphysite church displayed a significant interest in expanding missionary activity in the Himyarite Kingdom. [17]

Najran

Before Dhu Nuwas

Several legends have been produced to explain how Christianity was introduced into Najran. According to Ibn Ishaq, it was introduced by the miracle working of a Christian monk named Euphemius. Al-Tabari also claims Euphemius was responsible, although he presents a different story as to how Euphemius went about introducing the religion. According to Nestorian sources, Christianity was introduced by a merchant named Hannan or Hanyan who began by converting his family, and then the rest of the peoples. [28]

A significant Christian community was established in the city of Najran between the fourth and sixth centuries. A Greek inscription, likely Christian, has been found north of Najran which reads "Lord, protect me." [29] More recently, a large number of inscriptions were discovered near Najran during the 2010s and published in 2014 known as the Hima Paleo-Arabic inscriptions, many of which contain Christian iconography, including large and ornate crosses, establishing a notable Christian community in the region which had produced them. For example, Ḥimà-al-Musammāt PalAr 5 contains a cross and describes a figure named "῾Abd al-Masīḥ" ("the servant of Christ"). [30] [31] The Christian community of Najran was also linked with Syriac Christianity and some of the clerics located at Najran were trained in Syriac monasteries. [18]

Massacre of the Christian community

Around 500, the Kingdom of Aksum invaded the Arabian peninsula, overthrowing the Himyarite king and installing in his place the hardline Jewish king Dhu Nuwas. Dhu Nuwas went on to try combatting the Christianizing influence from the Kingdom of Aksum militarily and massacred the Christian community of Najran, [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] which is in part documented by an inscription made by S²rḥʾl Yqbl (Yusuf's army commander), Ja 1028, which describes the burning of a church and slaughtering of Abyssinians (Ethiopian Christians), claiming thousands of deaths and prisoners. These events are also discussed in several contemporary Christian sources: in the writings of Procopius, Cosmas Indicopleustes, John Malalas, and Jacob of Serugh. Jacob sent a letter of consolation to the Christians of Najran in their time of persecution, titled the Letter to the Himyarites. [37] John of Ephesus related a letter from another contemporary, Mar Simeon, directed to Abbot von Gabula about the events. In addition, an anonymous author produced the Book of the Himyarites, a sixth-century Syriac chronicle of the persecution and martyrdom of the Christians of Najran. This event to a significant counterattack by the Ethiopian kingdom, leading to the conquest of Himyar in 525 and the end of the Jewish leadership of southern Arabia and the beginning of Christian rule. [38] Sumyafa Ashwa came into power, but he was soon overthrown by his rival Abraha, initiating a period of Ethiopian Christian rule over southern Arabia in 530. [39]

Christianity survived in Najran into the Islamic period. Muhammad is said to have sent a delegation to the Najrani Christian community, and there is a fable claiming that the Christians of Najran were expelled by the caliph Umar. According to the traveler Ibn al-Mujawir (d. 1292), Christianity survived in Najran until the 13th century. [40]

Christian rule

During the Ethiopian Christian period, Christianity appears to have become the official religion. [41] Many churches began to be built. [42] For example, the inscription RIÉ 191, discovered in Axum, describes the construction of a church off the coast of Yemen. The Marib Dam inscription from 548 mentions a priest, a monastery, and an abbot of that monastery. [43] As in the Himyarite period, Christian inscriptions continue to refer to the monotheistic deity using the name Rahmanan, but now these inscriptions are accompanied with crosses and references to Christ as the Messiah and the Holy Spirit. For example, one (damaged) inscription, as for example in Ist 7608 bis. Another extensive inscription, CIH 541, documents Abraha sponsoring the construction of a church at Marib, besides invoking/mentioning the Messiah, Spirit, and celebrations hosted by a priest at another church. Abraha celebrated the construction of the dam by holding mass in the city church and inviting ambassadors from Rome and Persia. Later Islamic historiography also ascribes to Abraha the construction of a church at Sanaa. Robin has argued that Abraha's inscriptions bear a relatively low Christology, perhaps meant to assuage the Jewish population, and their formulae resemble descriptions of Jesus in the Quran. [44] (The Jabal Dabub inscription is another South Arabian Christian graffito dating to the sixth century and containing a pre-Islamic variant of the Basmala. [45] ) Whereas Abraha's predecessor more explicitly denoted Jesus as the Son of Rahmanan and as "Victor" (corresponding to Aksumite description under Kaleb of Axum), and made use of Trinitarian formulae, Abraha began to only describe Jesus as God's "Messiah" (but not Son) and, in aligning himself more closely with Syriac Christianity, replaced Aksumite Christian with Syriac loanwords. [46] However, some have rejected this thesis, on the basis of the small number of inscriptions it is based on and the unlikelihood that any 6th or 7th-century sect of Christianity, especially one that used biblical literature, would have rejected Jesus' sonship. [47] The use of the phrase "Rahmanan and his son Christ the conqueror" in inscriptions from this time owes to the use of the Syriac loanword Masīḥ. [4] More broadly, the separation of Abraha's Himyar from the Akumsite kingdom corresponded to its greater alignment with the Christianity espoused in Antioch and Syria. Inscriptions from this region disappear after 560. [46] Abraha's influence would end up extending across the regions he conquered, including regions of eastern Arabia, central Arabia, Medina in the Hejaz, and an unidentified site called Gzm. [48]

Eastern Arabia & the Gulf Coast

Jubail Church in eastern Saudi Arabia. The 4th century remains are thought to be one of the oldest surviving church buildings in the world. Jubail Church.jpg
Jubail Church in eastern Saudi Arabia. The 4th century remains are thought to be one of the oldest surviving church buildings in the world.

Overview

Christianity had become present along the Eastern coast of the Arabian peninsula by the late fourth century, and shows evidence of substantial organization by the fifth century when it first appears in the records of synods being held by the international Christian communities in starting at 410. From then on, bishops and monasteries continue to be mentioned in the Gulf by chronicles, synodic acts, hagiographies and letters all in Syriac records, indicating the presence of many Christian communities in the area. Whereas textual records continue to mention Christian communities until the seventh century, evidence for Christian populations unearthed archaeologically additionally attests to their presence from the seventh to ninth centuries, including churches and monasteries. [49]

Qatar

The Chronicle of Arbela, which appears to date to the sixth century, claims that a bishopric already existed in Beth Qatraye (Syriac-originating term for "territory of the Qataris") around the year 225. However, this is unlikely and the document is considered a forgery by modern specialists. [50]

The first concrete evidence of a highly organized Christian presence in the region of modern-day Qatar is in the description of the synods held at Seleucia-Ctesiphon between 410 and 776, as documented in the eighth-century Synodicon Orientale. The signatory Qatari bishop of this synod was stated to have replaced an earlier bishop, pushing back the date of organized Christianity in this region to the late fourth century. The Synodicon shows that four dioceses existed in the region connected to Persia. The earliest and largest of these dioceses was Mashmahig mentioned at the 410 synod, led by the bishop Elijah (Elias). The last known "bishop and metropolitan of the land of Qaṭar" was named Thomas, who signed his name on the synod in 676. The second largest diocese, Darain was located on the island of Toduro (modern Tarout Island) and was founded during the 410 synod. It was led by the bishop Paul. The third diocese, Hajar, was founded during the Synod of 576 under Bishop Isaac. The 676 synod divided it into two, the Hajar and Hatta dioceses. During this event, Hatta became the fourth and last diocese to be founded in Qatar. Later, Isaac the Syrian (613–700), also known as Isaac of Qatar, would grow up in Qatar before he was ordained and became a monk in Iraq. Other prominent Qatari Christians born in the pre-Islamic period include Gabriel of Qatar, Abraham bar Lipeh, and Ahob of Qatar. [51] [52] [53]

Other literary accounts mention additional monasteries. For example, according to the Life of Jonah, a monastery was constructed on the Black Island between 343–346. [2]

Several Christian sites have been discovered in Qatar and other Gulf countries in recent decades, and they have been dated between the sixth to ninth centuries. Unfortunately, the lack of inscriptions to accompany these discoveries have presented difficulties in dating their remains. [51] [54]

Eastern Saudi Arabia

Discovered in 1986, the Jubail Church is a church found near Jubail in northeastern Arabia and on the Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. [55] Discoveries of Christian sites have also been made at Jubayl, Thaj, and finally Kilwa, the latter being the only Christian site discovered in eastern Arabia that is not either on an island or directly on the coast. [56] Although some have dated it to the fourth century, more recently, it has been redated to the mid-7th century. [57]

Other Gulf countries

Several additional archaeological findings have been made elsewhere in the Gulf countries. [58] [56] [59] In the mid-seventh century, the Patriarch of the Church of the East, Isho'yahb, sent a letter to Qataris wherein he described the presence of several faithful communities, including Talun, which is a now an island of Bahrain. In Oman, a diocese was established by the name of Bet-Mazunaye in the Synod of 424 under the Bishop John. It was mentioned again at the synods of 544, 576, and 767. [51]

A monastery has been discovered at Sir Bani Yas, an island in the United Arab Emirates. It contains decorative motifs that resemble ones known from Al-Hira in Iraq. [60] [61] Even more impressive is a monastery discovered in al-Quṣur in Failaka Island in Kuwait. A monastery has also been discovered at the Kharg Island in Iran, located 40 km offshore from Bahrain. [51] [62]

The dating of these archaeological sites is contentious. The new dating suggests their construction in the Islamic era, [54] although this view does not presently have unanimous support. [56]

Western Arabia

In 2017, a Christian inscription from northwestern Arabia in the Al-Jawf Province was published, known as the Dumat al-Jandal inscription (DaJ144PAr1). [63] The inscription contains a cross and also makes use of the divine epithet ʾl-ʾlh (al-ilāh), an uncontracted form of allāh which originated among Arabian Christians. Christians may have used this uncontracted form as an isomorphism or calque for the Greek expression ho theos, which is how the Hebrew ʾĕlōhîm is rendered in the Septuagint. [64] This uncontracted form continued to be used by Christians until the tenth century even as the form ʾllh appeared in the Quran with two consecutive lāms without a hamza. [65] One Islamic-era example of this is in the Yazid inscription. [66] It is also likely that another pre-Islamic inscription from Dumat al-Jandal, DaJ000NabAr1, was composed by a Christian. [67]

In 2018, eleven inscriptions written in Greek were published deriving from the regions of ʿArniyyāt and Umm Jadhāyidh, northwest of Hegra (Mada'in Salih) in Saudi Arabia. They date from the second and fourth centuries, and some are evidently Christian. For example, UJadhGr 10 contains an inscribed cross. ArGr1 reads "Remember Petros!", which refers to a typical Christian name. [68] [69]

Western Arabia does not feature in episcopal lists or in ecclesiastical hagiography [70] and until recently it has been argued that there is little concrete evidence for the presence of Christians in this region, including near Mecca and Medina. [71] [72] Although no Christian inscriptions are yet known from the region immediately around Mecca or Medina, this is likely due to the fact that no systematic epigraphic surveys or archaeological excavations of pre-Islamic sites have been done in these areas. [73]

The Quran appears to be familiar with a range of Christian beliefs in its environment in Western Arabia and presupposes a form of institutionalized Christianity in this region. [74] The Quran is familiar with Christian religious institutions as well as authorities like the priests and overseers of the Christian community. [75]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allah</span> Arabic word for God

Allah is the common Arabic word for God. In the English language, the word generally refers to God in Islam. The word is thought to be derived by contraction from al-ilāh, which means "the god", and is linguistically related to the Aramaic words Elah and Syriac ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ (ʼAlāhā) and the Hebrew word El (Elohim) for God.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia</span> Overview of religions in Arabia before Islam

Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia included indigenous Arabian polytheism, ancient Semitic religions, Christianity, Judaism, Mandaeism, and Zoroastrianism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Himyarite Kingdom</span> Former kingdom in ancient Yemen

The Himyarite Kingdom was a polity in the southern highlands of Yemen, as well as the name of the region which it claimed. Until 110 BCE, it was integrated into the Qatabanian kingdom, afterwards being recognized as an independent kingdom. According to classical sources, their capital was the ancient city of Zafar, relatively near the modern-day city of Sana'a. Himyarite power eventually shifted to Sana'a as the population increased in the fifth century. After the establishment of their kingdom, it was ruled by kings from dhū-Raydān tribe. The kingdom was named Raydān.

Dhū Nuwās,, real name Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar, Yosef Nu'as, or Yūsuf ibn Sharhabil, also known as Masruq in Syriac, and Dounaas (Δουναας) in Medieval Greek, was a Jewish king of Himyar reigning between 522–530 AD who came to renown on account of his persecutions of peoples of other religions, notably Christians, living in his kingdom. He was also known as Zur'ah ibn Tub'an As'ad Abi Karib in the Arab traditions.

Abraha, also known as Abraha al-Ashram, was a viceroy for the Kingdom of Aksum who ruled the Himyarite Kingdom of Yemen and much of the Arabian Peninsula in the 6th century. He is famous for the tradition of his attempt to destroy the Kaaba, a revered religious site in Mecca, using an army that included war elephants, an event known as Year of the Elephant. During his reign, Christianity was the most populous of all.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Najran</span> City in Najran Province, Saudi Arabia

Najran, is a city in southwestern Saudi Arabia It is the capital of Najran Province. Designated as a new town, Najran is one of the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom; its population has risen from 47,500 in 1974 and 90,983 in 1992 to 246,880 in 2004 and 381,431 in 2021. The population mostly originates from the ancient tribes of Yām,

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-Islamic Arabia</span> Demography of the Arabian Peninsula before 610 CE

Pre-Islamic Arabia, referring to the Arabian Peninsula before Muhammad's first revelation in 610 CE, is referred to in Islam in the context of jahiliyyah, highlighting the prevalence of paganism throughout the region at the time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ancient history of Yemen</span>

The ancient history ofYemen or South Arabia is especially important because it is one of the oldest centers of civilization in the Near East. Its relatively fertile land and adequate rainfall in a moister climate helped sustain a stable population, a feature recognized by the ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy, who described Yemen as Eudaimon Arabia meaning Fortunate Arabia or Happy Arabia. Between the eighth century BCE and the sixth century CE, it was dominated by six main states which rivaled each other, or were allied with each other and controlled the lucrative spice trade: Saba', Ma'īn, Qatabān, Hadhramaut, Kingdom of Awsan, and the Himyarite Kingdom. Islam arrived in 630 CE and Yemen became part of the Muslim realm.

The existence of a Christian community in the city of Najran in present-day southwestern Saudi Arabia is attested by several historical sources of the Arabian Peninsula, where it recorded as having been created in the 5th century AD or perhaps a century earlier. According to the Arab Muslim historian Ibn Ishaq, Najran was the first place where Christianity took root in South Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aksumite–Persian wars</span> Armed conflict of the 6th century CE

The Aksumite–Persian wars were a protracted series of armed engagements between the Sasanian Persian Empire and the Aksumite Empire for control over South Arabia in the 6th century CE. After a decisive victory at the Battle of Hadhramaut in 570, the Sasanian forces marched on and besieged Sana'a, following which the Aksumites were largely expelled from the Arabian Peninsula, however they still had direct control of Najran. The Persians instated the former Himyarite king Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan as the governor of the new Sasanian province of Yemen. However, Yazan was murdered by his Ethiopian servants four years into his reign, after which the Aksumites re-established their power in the region. Following the death of Yazan, the Sasanian army mounted a second invasion and re-conquered Yemen by 575–578, marking the end of Axumite rule in Arabia. After Sasanian control was firmly established in the region, the Persian military general Wahrez was installed as the direct governor of Yemen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old Arabic</span> Earliest attested stage of the Arabic language

Old Arabic is the name for any Arabic language or dialect continuum before Islam. Various forms of Old Arabic are attested in scripts like Safaitic, Hismaic, Nabatean, and even Greek.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Al-Qalis Church, Sanaa</span> Church building in Sanaa, Yemen

The Al-Qalis Church was a Miaphysite Christian church constructed sometime between 527 and the late 560s in the city of Sanaa in modern-day Yemen. The church's lavish decorations made it an important place of pilgrimage, placing it in competition with Kaaba in Mecca. According to the National Museum of Saudi Arabia in Riyadh, Abraha built Al-Qullays in Sana'a. He also built a similar one in Najran for Bani Al-Harith, the House of Allat in Taif for the tribe of Thaqeef, the House of Yareem and the House of Ghamdan in Yemen.

Judaism has been practiced as a religion in the Arabian Peninsula since at least the first century BCE. It is also the pre-Islamic monotheistic religion to be practiced in Arabia. Arabian Jews were linguistically diverse and would have varied in their practice of the religion. The presence of Jews is best attested in Northwestern and Southern Arabia. Judaism would briefly become politically relevant in the fourth century, when the rulers of the Kingdom of Himyar converted to Judaism.

Sumyafa' Ashwa al-Yazani, also known as Esimiphaios in Syriac and Greek sources, was a vassal king of Himyar, ruling in the 6th century CE under the Aksumite Empire. He was also the viceroy of the Aksumite king Kaleb, who had invaded Himyar and defeated Dhu Nuwas. Sumyafa' Ashwa was a native convert to Christianity.

Raḥmānān was an epithet and theonym predominantly used to refer to a singular, monotheistic God from the fourth to sixth centuries in South Arabia, beginning when the ruling class of the Himyarite Kingdom converted to Judaism and replacing invocations to polytheistic religions. The term may have also been monolatrous until the arrival of Christianity in the mid-sixth century.

Quranic studies is the academic application of a diverse set of disciplines to study the Quran, drawing on methods including but not limited to ancient history, philology, textual criticism, lexicography, codicology, literary criticism, comparative religion, and historical criticism.

The Zabad inscription is a trilingual Christian inscription containing text in the Greek, Syriac, and Paleo-Arabic scripts. Composed in the village of Zabad in northern Syria in 512, the inscription dedicates the construction of the martyrium, named the Church of St. Sergius, to Saint Sergius. The inscription itself is positioned at the lintel of the entrance portal.

The practice of polytheistic religion dominated in pre-Islamic Arabia until the fourth century. Inscriptions in various scripts used in the Arabian Peninsula including the Nabataean script, Safaitic, and Sabaic attest to the practice of polytheistic cults and idols until the fourth century, whereas material evidence from the fifth century onwards is almost categorically monotheistic. It is in this era that Christianity, Judaism, and other generic forms of monotheism become salient among Arab populations. In South Arabia, the ruling class of the Himyarite Kingdom would convert to Judaism and a cessation of polytheistic inscriptions is witnessed. Monotheistic religion would continue as power in this region transitioned to Christian rulers, principally Abraha, in the early sixth century.

Ma'dikarib Ya'fur was a king of Himyar who reigned for six to seven years before Dhu Nuwas. Only two archaeological inscriptions mentioning him which date to the year 521 exist. In Arabian folklore, Ma'dikarib Ya'fur does not exist and is instead replaced by a person named Dhu Shanatir.

The Dhu Yazan also known as Al-Yazanin were a prominent Arab tribal clan and elite ruling family of Yemen that were affiliated with the Sabaean Kingdom and later on, the Himyarite Kingdom. They were ultimately deprived from their elite status and ruling by the Sasanian Empire, which controlled Yemen from 570 CE until 678 CE. The Arabian genealogists and historians trace their lineage to a man named 'Amir ibn Aslam who was given the title Dhu Yazan and was a contemporary of the Himyarite ruler Abu Karib, although the Dhu Yazan clan has existed way back during the time of Dhamar Ali Yuhabirr.

References

  1. 1 2 Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01), "Arabs and Christianity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 284–286, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0007, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  2. 1 2 Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)", The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century, Gorgias Press, pp. 37–40, doi:10.31826/9781463236649-004, ISBN   978-1-4632-3664-9
  3. ↑ Hoyland, Robert (2018). Río Sánchez, Francisco del; Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (eds.). Jewish Christianity and the origins of Islamconference). Brepols. pp. 37–40. OCLC   1029235683.
  4. 1 2 3 Arbach, Mounir (2022). "Le christianisme en Arabie avant l'Islam". Bulletin des Chrétiens d'Orient: 17–26.
  5. ↑ Al-Jallad, Ahmad. "Jesus in Arabia: Tracing the Spread of Christianity into the Desert". The BAS Library. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
  6. ↑ Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01), "Arabs and Christianity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 287–289, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0007, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  7. ↑ Trombley, Frank R. (1994). Hellenic Religion and Christianization c. 370-529, Volume II. Brill. pp. 166–170. doi:10.1163/9789004276789. ISBN   978-90-04-27678-9.
  8. ↑ Hoyland, Robert (2018). Río Sánchez, Francisco del; Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (eds.). Jewish Christianity and the origins of Islamconference). Brepols. p. 38. OCLC   1029235683.
  9. ↑ Millar 2009.
  10. ↑ Fiema, Zbigniew .T; al-Jallad, Ahmad; MacDonald, Michael C.A.; Nehmé, Laïla (2015). "Provincia Arabia: Nabataea, the Emergence of Arabic as a Written Language, and Graeco-Arabica". In Fisher, Greg (ed.). Arabs and empires before Islam. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 416–417. ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9.
  11. ↑ Al-Jallad, Ahmad; Al-Manaser, Ali (2021). "The Pre-Islamic Divine Name ʿsy and the Background of the Qurʾānic Jesus". Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association. 6 (1): 107–136. doi:10.5913/jiqsa.6.2021.a004. ISSN   2474-8420.
  12. ↑ Farès, Saba (2011). "Christian monasticism on the eve of Islam: Kilwa (Saudi Arabia) — new evidence". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 22 (2): 243–252. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2011.00335.x. ISSN   0905-7196.
  13. ↑ Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01), "Arabs and Christianity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 289–290, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0007, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  14. ↑ Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01), "Arabs and Christianity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, p. 278, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0007, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  15. ↑ Wood, Philip (2023). "Christianity in the Arabian Peninsula and Possible Contexts for the Qurʾān". In Dye, Guillaume (ed.). Early Islam: the sectarian milieu of late Antiquity?. Éditions de l'Université de Bruxelles. p. 231. ISBN   978-2-8004-1814-8.
  16. ↑ Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01), "Arabs and Christianity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 281–282, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0007, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  17. 1 2 Forness, Philip Michael (2018). Preaching Christology in the Roman Near East: a study of Jacob of Serugh. Oxford early Christian studies. Oxford New York (N.Y.): Oxford University Press. pp. 120–126. ISBN   978-0-19-882645-3.
  18. 1 2 Hoyland, Robert (2022). "ʿArabī and aʿjamī in the Qurʾān: The Language of Revelation in Muḥammad's Ḥijāz". In Donner, Fred McGraw; Hasselbach, Rebecca (eds.). Scripts and scripture: writing and religion in Arabia circa 500-700 CE. Late antique and medieval islamic near east. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 109–110. ISBN   978-1-61491-073-2.
  19. ↑ Grasso, Valentina A. (2023). Pre-islamic Arabia: societies, politics, cults and identities during late antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 151–152. ISBN   978-1-009-25296-6.
  20. ↑ Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01), "Arabs and Christianity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 311–312, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0007, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  21. 1 2 Wood, Philip (2023). "Christianity in the Arabian Peninsula and Possible Contexts for the Qurʾān". In Dye, Guillaume (ed.). Early Islam: the sectarian milieu of late Antiquity?. Éditions de l'Université de Bruxelles. pp. 232–233. ISBN   978-2-8004-1814-8.
  22. ↑ Toral-Niehoff, Isabel (2014). Al-Ḥīra: eine arabische Kulturmetropole im spätantiken Kontext. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. 194–211. ISBN   978-90-04-26024-5.
  23. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 102–103, 107. ISBN   978-90-04-68712-7.
  24. ↑ Toral-Niehof, Isabel (2010). "The ʿIbād of al-Ḥīra: An Arab Christian Community in Late Antique Iraq". In Neuwirth, Angelika; Sinai, Nicolai; Marx, Michael (eds.). The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu. Brill. pp. 323–348.
  25. ↑ Briquel-Chatonnet, Françoise; Debié, Muriel (2023). The Syriac world: in search of a forgotten Christianity. Translated by Haines, Jeffrey. New Haven London: Yale University Press. pp. 115–117. ISBN   978-0-300-25353-5.
  26. ↑ Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2020). "The Linguistic Landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia: Context for the Qur'an". In Shah, Mustafa; Haleem, M.A.S. Abdel (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Qur'anic Studies. Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford university press. pp. 120–121. ISBN   978-0-19-969864-6.
  27. ↑ Fisher, Greg (2020). Rome, Persia, and Arabia: shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad. London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 90. ISBN   978-0-415-72880-5.
  28. ↑ Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)", The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century, Gorgias Press, pp. 48–49, doi:10.31826/9781463236649-004, ISBN   978-1-4632-3664-9
  29. ↑ Gajda, Iwona (2009). Le royaume de Ḥimyar à l'époque monothéiste. L'histoire de l'Arabie du Sud ancienne de la fin du IVe siècle de l'ère chrétienne jusqu'à l'avènement de l'Islam. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. pp. 249–250.
  30. ↑ Robin, Christian; al-Ghabbān, ʿAlī Ibrāhīm; al-Saʿīd, Saʿīd Fāyiz (2014). "Inscriptions antiques de la région de Najran (Arabie Séoudite meridionale): nouveaux jalons pour l'histoire de l'écriture, de la langue et du calendrier Arabes". Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Inscriptions & Belles-Lettres. pp. 1033–1128.
  31. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 97–98. ISBN   978-90-04-68712-7.
  32. ↑ Brock, Sebastian P.; Harvey, Susan Ashbrook, eds. (1987). Holy women of the Syrian Orient. The transformation of the classical heritage. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 100–121. ISBN   978-0-520-05705-0.
  33. ↑ Chatonnet, Françoise Briquel; Robin, Christian Julien (2000). "La persécution des chrétiens de Nagran et la chronologie himyarite". ARAM: 15–83.
  34. ↑ Gajda, Iwona (2009). Le royaume de Ḥimyar à l'époque monothéiste. L'histoire de l'Arabie du Sud ancienne de la fin du IVe siècle de l'ère chrétienne jusqu'à l'avènement de l'Islam. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. pp. 82–109.
  35. ↑ Bowersock, G. W. (2012). Empires in collision in late antiquity. The Menahem Stern Jerusalem lectures. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press. pp. 20–23. ISBN   978-1-61168-320-2.
  36. ↑ Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip; Bevan, George; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Hamarneh, Basema; Schadler, Peter; Ward, Walter (2015-07-01), "Arabs and Christianity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 363–367, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0007, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  37. ↑ Olinder, G. (1937). Iacobi Sarugensis epistulae quotquot supersunt. pp. 87–102.
  38. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 73–76. ISBN   978-90-04-68712-7.
  39. ↑ Bowersock, G. W. (2012). Empires in collision in late antiquity. The Menahem Stern Jerusalem lectures. Waltham, Mass: Brandeis University Press. p. 24. ISBN   978-1-61168-320-2.
  40. ↑ Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)", The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century, Gorgias Press, pp. 50–53, doi:10.31826/9781463236649-004, ISBN   978-1-4632-3664-9
  41. ↑ Robin, Christian Julien (2015-07-01), "Ḥimyar, Aksūm, and Arabia Deserta in Late Antiquity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 153–154, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0004, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-20
  42. ↑ Robin, Christian Julien (2015-07-01), "Ḥimyar, Aksūm, and Arabia Deserta in Late Antiquity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, p. 149, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0004, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-20
  43. ↑ Robin, Christian Julien (2015). "Ḥimyar, Aksūm, and Arabia Deserta in Late Antiquity: The Epigraphic Evidence". In Fisher, Greg (ed.). Arabs and empires before Islam. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 164–167. ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9.
  44. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 98–102. ISBN   978-90-04-68712-7.
  45. ↑ Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2022). "A pre-Islamic basmala: reflections on its first epigraphic attestation and its original significance". Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. 52: 1–28.
  46. 1 2 Robin, Christian Julien (2015-07-01), "Ḥimyar, Aksūm, and Arabia Deserta in Late Antiquity", Arabs and Empires before Islam, Oxford University Press, pp. 153–154, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654529.003.0004, ISBN   978-0-19-965452-9 , retrieved 2024-02-20
  47. ↑ Shoemaker 2018.
  48. ↑ Grasso, Valentina A. (2023). Pre-islamic Arabia: societies, politics, cults and identities during late antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 119. ISBN   978-1-009-25296-6.
  49. ↑ Bonnéric, Julie (2015-12-23). "Christianity in the Arab-Persian Gulf: An Ancient But Still Obscure History". Le carnet de la MAFKF.
  50. ↑ Potts, Daniel T. (2004). The Arabian Gulf in antiquity. 2: From Alexander the Great to the coming of Islam (Reprinted ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 241. ISBN   978-0-19-814391-8.
  51. 1 2 3 4 Lamport, Mark A., ed. (2018). Encyclopedia of Christianity in the global south: Volume 2. Lanham Boulder New York London: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 665–667. ISBN   978-1-4422-7157-9.
  52. ↑ Kozah, Mario, ed. (2014). The Syriac writers of Qatar in the seventh century. Gorgias Eastern Christian studies. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN   978-1-4632-0524-9.
  53. ↑ Kozah, Mario; Abu-Husayn, Abdulrahim; Al-Murikhi, Saif Shaheen; Thani, Haya Al, eds. (2015-11-04), An Anthology of Syriac Writers from Qatar in the Seventh Century, Gorgias Press, doi:10.31826/9781463236717, ISBN   978-1-4632-3671-7
  54. 1 2 Carter, R.A. (2008). "Christianity in the Gulf during the first centuries of Islam". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 19 (1): 71–108. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2008.00293.x. ISSN   0905-7196.
  55. ↑ Langfeldt, John A. (1994). "Recently discovered early Christian monuments in Northeastern Arabia". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 5: 32–60. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.1994.tb00054.x.
  56. 1 2 3 Briquel-Chatonnet, Françoise; Debié, Muriel (2023). The Syriac world: in search of a forgotten Christianity. Translated by Haines, Jeffrey. New Haven London: Yale University Press. pp. 115–122. ISBN   978-0-300-25353-5.
  57. ↑ Carter, R.A. (2008). "Christianity in the Gulf during the first centuries of Islam". Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy. 19 (1): 71–108. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0471.2008.00293.x. ISSN   0905-7196.
  58. ↑ Elders, Joseph (2001). "The lost churches of the Arabian Gulf: recent discoveries on the islands of Sir Bani Yas and Marawah, Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates". Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 31: 47–57. ISSN   0308-8421. JSTOR   41223670.
  59. ↑ Mourad, Suleiman A. (2014-12-09), "Christianity in Arabia: An Overview (4th–9th Centuries CE)", The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century, Gorgias Press, pp. 55–56, doi:10.31826/9781463236649-004, ISBN   978-1-4632-3664-9
  60. ↑ King, G. R. D. (1997). "A Nestorian Monastic Settlement on the Island of Ṣīr Banī Yās, Abu Dhabi: A Preliminary Report". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 60 (2): 221–235. ISSN   0041-977X. JSTOR   620383.
  61. ↑ Hellyer, Peter (2001). "Nestorian Christianity in the Pre-Islamic UAE and Southern Arabia". Journal of Social Affairs. 18: 79–99.
  62. ↑ Steve, Marie-Joseph (2003). L'ile de Kharg. Une page de l'histoire du Golfe Persique et du monachisme oriental. Neuchâtel.
  63. ↑ Nehmé, Laila (2017). "New dated inscriptions (Nabataean and pre-Islamic Arabic) from a site near al-Jawf,ancient Dūmah, Saudi Arabia". Arabian Epigraphic Notes. 3: 121–164.
  64. ↑ Sinai, Nicolai (2019). Rain-Giver, Bone-Breaker, Score-Settler: Allāh in Pre-Quranic Poetry. American Oriental Press. p. 7.
  65. ↑ Al-Jallad, Ahmad (2021-12-02), ""May God be Mindful of Yazīd the King": Further Reflections on the Yazīd Inscription and the Development of Arabic Scripts", Late Antique Responses to the Arab Conquests, Brill, pp. 195–211, doi:10.1163/9789004500648_009, ISBN   978-90-04-50064-8 , retrieved 2024-02-21
  66. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2020-11-30). "Review of Nicolai SINAI, Rain-Giver, Bone-Breaker, Score-Settler: Allāh in Pre-Quranic Poetry". Journal of the International Qur'anic Studies Association. 5 (s1): 58–73. doi:10.1515/jiqsa-2020-06s106. ISSN   2474-8420.
  67. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 109–111. ISBN   978-90-04-68712-7.
  68. ↑ Villeneuve, François (2018). "The Greek inscriptions at al-ʿArniyyāt and Umm Jadhāyidh". In Nehmé, Laila (ed.). The Darb al-Bakrah. A Caravan Route in North-West Arabia Discovered by Ali I. al-Ghabban. Catalogue of the Inscriptions. Riyadh: Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage. pp. 285–292.
  69. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 108–109. ISBN   978-90-04-68712-7.
  70. ↑ Wood, Philip (2023). "Christianity in the Arabian Peninsula and Possible Contexts for the Qurʾān". In Dye, Guillaume (ed.). Early Islam: the sectarian milieu of late Antiquity?. Éditions de l'Université de Bruxelles. p. 236. ISBN   978-2-8004-1814-8.
  71. ↑ Munt, Harry (2015). ""No two religions": Non-Muslims in the early Islamic Ḥijāz". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 78 (2): 249–254. doi:10.1017/S0041977X14001049. ISSN   0041-977X.
  72. ↑ Shoemaker, Stephen J. (2022). Creating the Qur'an: a historical-critical study. Oakland, California: University of California Press. pp. 245–254. ISBN   978-0-520-38903-8.
  73. ↑ Lindstedt, Ilkka (2023). Muhammad and his followers in context: the religious map of late antique Arabia. Islamic history and civilization. Leiden Boston: Brill. pp. 117–118. ISBN   978-90-04-68712-7.
  74. ↑ Tesei, Tommaso (2021). "The Qurʾān(s) in Context(s)". Journal Asiatique: 189.
  75. ↑ Zellentin, Holger (2016). "Aḥbār and Ruhbān: Religious Leaders in the Qurʾān in Dialogue with Christian and Rabbinic Literature". In Neuwirth, Angelika; Sells, Michael (eds.). Qurʼanic studies today. Routledge studies in the Qurʼān. London New York (N.Y.): Routledge, Taylor & Francis group. pp. 258–289. ISBN   978-1-138-18195-3.

Additional sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.