Cleome gynandra

Last updated

Cleome gynandra
Cleome gynandra Blanco1.233-cropped.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Cleomaceae
Genus: Cleome
Species:
C. gynandra
Binomial name
Cleome gynandra
L.
Cleome gynandra, verspreidingskaart, a.png
  world range [1]
Synonyms [2]
List
    • Cleome acutaSchumach. & Thonn.
    • Cleome affinis(Blume) Spreng. nom. illeg.
    • Cleome alliaceaBlanco
    • Cleome alliodoraBlanco
    • Cleome blumeanaD.Dietr.
    • Cleome bungeiSteud.
    • Cleome candelabrumSims
    • Cleome denticulataSchult. & Schult.f.
    • Cleome ecklonianaSchrad.
    • Cleome flexuosaF.Dietr. ex Schult. & Schult.f.
    • Cleome heterotrichaBurch.
    • Cleome muricata(Schrad.) Schult. & Schult.f.
    • Cleome oleraceaWelw.
    • Cleome pentaphyllaL.
    • Cleome pubescensSieber ex Steud.
    • Cleome roseaEckl. ex Steud. nom. inval.
    • Cleome triphyllaL.
    • Gymnogonia pentaphylla(L.) R. Br. ex Steud.
    • Gynandropsis affinisBlume
    • Gynandropsis candelabrum(Sims) Sweet
    • Gynandropsis denticulataDC.
    • Gynandropsis glandulosaC.Presl
    • Gynandropsis gynandra(L.) Briq.
    • Gynandropsis heterotrichaDC.
    • Gynandropsis muricataSchrad.
    • Gynandropsis ophitocarpaDC.
    • Gynandropsis palmipesDC.
    • Gynandropsis pentaphylla(L.) DC.
    • Gynandropsis pentaphyllaBlanco
    • Gynandropsis sinicaMiq.
    • Gynandropsis triphyllaDC.
    • Gynandropsis viscidaBunge
    • Pedicellaria pentaphylla(L.) Schrank
    • Pedicellaria triphylla(L.) Pax
    • Podogyne pentaphylla(L.) Hoffmanns.
    • Sinapistrum pentaphyllum(L.) Medik.

Cleome gynandra is a species of Cleome that is used as a green vegetable. It is known by many common names including Shona cabbage, [3] African cabbage, spiderwisp, cat's whiskers, [4] and stinkweed. [5] It is an annual wildflower native to Africa but has become widespread in many tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world. [6]

Contents

Description

Cleome gynandra is an erect, branching plant generally between 25 cm and 60 cm tall. Depending on environmental conditions, it can reach up to 150 cm of height. [7] Its sparse leaves are each made up of 3–7 oval-shaped leaflets. The flowers are white, sometimes changing to rose pink as they age. [8] The leaves and flowers are both edible. The leaves have a strong bitter, sometimes peppery flavor similar to mustard greens.

The fruit is a dehiscent silique, a slender and spindle-shaped capsule, and measures 12 cm in length and 8–10 mm in width. During the ripening process, the color of the pods turns from green to yellow to brown when dry. In the dry state, they dehisce longitudinally and release their seeds. Each silique can contain as many as 100-150 seeds. The seeds are round, black and with a rough surface and measure 1.0-1.5 mm in diameter. [7] : 4  Seeds of C. gynandra contain 17-19% oil. [9]

Cleome gynandra has a long tap root with root hairs and has few secondary roots. [10]

Uses

Cleome gynandra 1.jpg

Typically, the leaves and shoots are eaten boiled or in stews. The leaves are often eaten in Sub-Saharan Africa, where they are often dried for storage, then cooked with milk or butter to reduce its bitter taste. [11] In Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, the leaves are cooked with groundnut paste.

The plant is useful for intercropping due to its insect repellent and anti-tick properties. [12] [13] Leaves exhibit repellent, destructive and antifeedant properties to some ticks species in all their life stages (larvae, nymphs, and adults). [14]

In Thailand and Malaysia, the leaves are a popular food item fermented with rice water as a pickle known as phak sian dong. [15] The same pickle is also eaten in the northern states of Malaysia, and is known as jeruk maman. The state of Negeri Sembilan specializes in rendang maman, [16] where the leaves are braised in spiced coconut milk for a long period of time to achieve the desirable crisp and texture.

The leaves also have antioxidative properties that can help with inflammatory diseases. [6] Because of its anti-inflammatory properties, it is sometimes used as a medicinal herb. [17] The leaves and flowers of C. gynandra have been used in traditional medicine to treat conditions including  food poisoning, rheumatism, inflammation, bacterial infections, [10] [18] [19] and especially pain-related conditions such as headache toothache, headache, neuralgia, stomach pain, ear-ache, rheumatoid arthritis, skeletal fractures, colic pain and chest pain. [20] [21] [22] In Saudi Arabia, C. gynandra extracts are used to treat the severe pain and anti-inflammatory reactions caused by scorpion stings. [23]

Special compounds & nutritional values

Cleome gynandra is high in beta-carotene, folic acid, ascorbic acid and calcium. It also contains vitamin E, iron, and oxalic acid. Generally, the leaves are about 4.0% protein. 100 g of C. gynandra contain around 1.4 g crude fibre, 127–484 mg vitamin C and 0.76 mg zinc, 3.1-7.7 g crude protein. The contents of iron and calcium vary by zone from 1–11 mg, and 213–434 mg respectively. [10]

The seeds of C. gynandra contain fatty acids such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid and essential amino acids including glutamic acid, arginine, leucine, valine, glycine, and proline. [24] [25]

Cultivation

Cleome gynandra is normally not a cultivated crop. Leaves are in most cases harvested from the plant found as naturally growing weed. However, some studies on the most suitable cultivation techniques have been conducted. [7] [26]

Soil requirements

Cleome gynandra requires deep, well drained fertile soils. It grows well on loose soils, with high humus content and with pH ranging from 5.5 to 7. [26]

Sowing

In cultivation, propagation of the plant is done by seed sowing. Given the small seed size, the depth of sowing and the preparation of the seedbed are important factors. The seedbed requires shallow ploughing (around 15 cm deep), weed removal and harrowing to have a fine loose soil. Seeds can be dispersed unevenly by broadcasting or shallowly drilled in rows spaced around 30 cm apart and around 1 cm deep. [7]

Weeding

Weeding is needed in the early stages of development, when the canopy coverage by C. gynandra leaves is still reduced. It can be done by hands or with suitable machinery, ensuring  shallow cultivation. [7]

Fertilization

Generous and frequent nitrogen based fertilizers can be applied to delay flowering, prolong vegetative growth and increase number and dimensions of the leaves. [27] Yield increase is more significant when nitrogen is provided in its organic form, although also inorganic nitrogen fertilizers ensure an increase in yield. Recommended fertilizers application depend on soil properties but can reach up to 30 t/ha of farm yard or compost manure or up to 120 kg/ha of inorganic fertilizers. [28]

Watering

To result in a good yield, C. gynandra needs adequate soil water content throughout the whole vegetative growing period. Frequent and controlled irrigation is desirable and must be determined depending on soil water retention properties. Over-watering can lead to yield loss due to the scarce resistance to flooding. [7]

Harvesting

Harvesting can be done in two distinct ways. The first one consists in complete uprooting of the whole plant and successive separation of the leaves from the stem. Alternatively, multiple harvesting can be done by cutting the higher part of the plant and collecting the upper leaves. This second strategy helps to increase lateral leaves growth and to delay flowering, extending the vegetative period. [7] [26]

Yield

When fertilizers and water are supplied appropriately, it has been reported that cumulative foliar yield can reach up to 30 t/ha. [26]

Pest and disease control

Cleome gynandra has developed through natural selection and not man-made selection for the highest yield. This makes it particularly resistant against diseases. [7] However, the following pests were found on the weed: pentatomids (Agonoselis nubilis), locustus (Schitocera gregaria), flea beetles (Phyllotreta mashonana), cabbage sawfly (Athalia spp.), bugs (Nezara spp. and Bagrada spp.), cotton jassids (Empoasca spp.), nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). [10] [29]

Pesticide attacks are generally stronger during dry periods than during the rainy season. These can, however, be controlled by firing the correct pesticides, such as Ambush, Ripcord and Rogor. [7] [10] Pest and diseases can also be controlled by breeding programmes. Thanks to this method, the use of fertilizers, which are expensive and cause damage to the environment, gets reduced. [29] [30]

Weaver birds eating the seeds during to vegetative stage and mildew fungus can also cause problems during Cleome gynandra’s growth. [10]

Breeding program

Despite the great potential of C. gynandra, there is a lack of information, awareness, promotion and available technologies in its cultivation.Therefore, not many studies have been done on the plant yet. [29] Research has tried to make this weed more resistant to dry weather, salt stress tolerance and lengthens its vegetative period, thus delaying flowering. [7] [30]

Moreover, since the leaves have a particularly bitter taste caused by condensed tannins, breeding programmes have also tried to change this plant trait, in order to attract more potential consumers. [30] [31]

Since C. gynandra is self-pollinating, inbreeding and interspecific crossing with its relatives are possible. [7] Studies on the potential number of plant chromosomes have been carried out, although the results are not yet clearly confirmed. [32] Genetic variability is wide and so are the possibilities to increase the biomass of the plant through cross-breeding. In areas where consumption is high, farmers have easily been able to select the most productive traits of the plant. Thus has confirmed good possibilities in its genetic improvement, especially within plants from different geographical origins. [29] [30] [33]

Socioeconomic potential

African Indigenous Vegetables (AIV) such as Cleome gynandra, which have no international trading record, play a crucial role in regional food security due to their suitability and adaptability to the local environment. In South Africa, C. gynandra was identified as the most income generating local vegetable, followed by crops like amaranth, black jack and wild jute. Producers with established recognition in Sub-Saharan African countries like Botswana, Malawi, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe secure contracts with supermarkets, restaurants, lodges, and hotels, which highlights the economic potential of this crop in regional agriculture. [34]

By enhancing the methods of conducting and sharing research on C. gynandra and employing strategies like value chain development and technology transfer programs, the establishment of sustainable collaboration frameworks for industry stakeholders are fostered. This could allow innovations to spread quickly and gain popularity. Addressing the challenges and opportunities for this crop requires the active involvement of multiple sectors, including farmer organisations, researchers, seed companies, traders, policy makers and consumers. To support AIV in sub-Saharan Africa, it is essential to support efforts through breeding, value chain development and the establishment of national frameworks. [34] Additionally, enhancing the utilization and popularity of orphan crops like C. gynandra requires diversifying products, fostering innovation, and value addition. As example, the urban younger generation showed a positive response to canned vegetable products. The strategic assumption behind is that introducing new product varieties will not only improve the acceptance of AIV but also increase consumption and demand from citizens of both the rural and urban context. [35]

Ecology and distribution

It is an annual wildflower native to Africa but has naturalized across tropic and sub-tropical regions across Africa, Asia and America. [6] In those regions it grows at altitudes from 0 to 2400 m above sea level. [6] It grows well in disturbed, well-drained soils, but is also drought-tolerant. It does not tolerate cold temperatures well, and is frost-tender. optimal growth conditions include temperatures between 18 °C and 25 °C, with high light intensity. [7]

Cleome gynandra is considered an invasive weed in many places in the U.S. [36] and elsewhere in the Pacific. [37]

Biochemistry

Cleome gynandra uses NAD-malic enzyme type C4 photosynthesis and has the characteristic traits associated with this, including changes in leaf biochemistry, cell biology and development. The family Cleomaceae is relatively close to Brassicaceae with Arabidopsis thaliana (a C3 photosynthetic plant) and therefore offers comparison with this well studied model organism. [38] The C4 pathway in this species evolved independently from two other C4Cleome species, C. angustifolia and C. oxalidea . [39]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amaranth</span> Genus of plants

Amaranthus is a cosmopolitan group of more than 50 species which make up the genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Some of the more well known names include "prostrate pigweed" and "love lies bleeding". Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals, and ornamental plants. Catkin-like cymes of densely packed flowers grow in summer or fall. Amaranth varies in flower, leaf, and stem color with a range of striking pigments from the spectrum of maroon to crimson and can grow longitudinally from 1 to 2.5 metres tall with a cylindrical, succulent, fibrous stem that is hollow with grooves and bracteoles when mature. There are approximately 75 species in the genus, 10 of which are dioecious and native to North America with the remaining 65 monoecious species endemic to every continent from tropical lowlands to the Himalayas. Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia. Amaranth grain is collected from the genus. The leaves of some species are also eaten.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Finger millet</span> Species of grass

Finger millet is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species probably evolved from its wild relative Eleusine africana.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lentil</span> Species of flowering plant with edible seeds in the family Fabaceae

The lentil is an edible legume. It is an annual plant known for its lens-shaped seeds. It is about 40 cm (16 in) tall, and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Legume</span> Plant in the family Fabaceae

Legumes are plants in the family Fabaceae, or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption; for livestock forage and silage; and as soil-enhancing green manure. Well-known legumes include beans, soybeans, chickpeas, peanuts, lentils, lupins, grass peas, mesquite, carob, tamarind, alfalfa, and clover. Legumes produce a botanically unique type of fruit – a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces on two sides.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cover crop</span> Crop planted to manage erosion and soil quality

In agriculture, cover crops are plants that are planted to cover the soil rather than for the purpose of being harvested. Cover crops manage soil erosion, soil fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in an agroecosystem—an ecological system managed and shaped by humans. Cover crops can increase microbial activity in the soil, which has a positive effect on nitrogen availability, nitrogen uptake in target crops, and crop yields. Cover crops may be an off-season crop planted after harvesting the cash crop. Cover crops are nurse crops in that they increase the survival of the main crop being harvested, and are often grown over the winter. In the United States, cover cropping may cost as much as $35 per acre.

<i>Vigna subterranea</i> Species of plant

Vigna subterranea is a member of the family Fabaceae. Its name is derived from the Bambara ethnic group. The plant originated in West Africa. As a food and source of income, the Bambara groundnut is considered to be the third most important leguminous crop in those African countries where it is grown, after peanut and cowpea. The crop is mainly cultivated, sold and processed by women, and is, thus, particularly valuable for female subsistence farmers.

<i>Salvia hispanica</i> Species of flowering plant in the mint and sage family Lamiaceae

Salvia hispanica, one of several related species commonly known as chia, is a species of flowering plant in the mint family, Lamiaceae, native to central and southern Mexico and Guatemala. It is considered a pseudocereal, cultivated for its edible, hydrophilic chia seed, grown and commonly used as food in several countries of western South America, western Mexico, and the southwestern United States.

<i>Portulaca oleracea</i> Annual succulent in the family Portulacaceae

Portulaca oleracea is an annual succulent in the family Portulacaceae.

<i>Chenopodium pallidicaule</i> Species of plant

Chenopodium pallidicaule, known as cañihua, canihua or cañahua and also kaniwa, is a species of goosefoot, similar in character and uses to the closely related quinoa.

<i>Lathyrus tuberosus</i> Species of legume

Lathyrus tuberosus is a small, climbing perennial plant, native in moist temperate parts of Europe and Western Asia. The plant is a trailer or weak climber, supported by tendrils, growing to 1.2 m tall. The leaves are pinnate, with two leaflets and a branched twining tendril at the apex of the petiole. Its flowers are hermaphroditic, pollinated by bees. The plants can also spread vegetatively from the root system.

<i>Coleus esculentus</i> Species of flowering plant

Coleus esculentus, synonym Plectranthus esculentus, also known as the kaffir potato or Livingstone potato, is a species of plant in the dicot family Lamiaceae. It is indigenous to Africa, where it is grown for its edible tubers. It is more difficult to cultivate than Coleus rotundifolius, but able to give greater yields. Although the crop is similar to a potato, it is from the mint family, but it is still quite nutritious and useful. This crop can benefit many subsistence farmers since it is native, easy to grow, enjoying growing popularity in the market, and quite nutritious.

<i>Amaranthus caudatus</i> Species of flowering plant

Amaranthus caudatus is a species of annual flowering plant. It goes by common names such as love-lies-bleeding, pendant amaranth, tassel flower, velvet flower, foxtail amaranth, and quilete.

<i>Moringa oleifera</i> Species of flowering tree

Moringa oleifera is a fast-growing, drought-resistant tree of the family Moringaceae, native to the Indian subcontinent and used extensively in South and Southeast Asia. Common names include moringa, drumstick tree, horseradish tree, or malunggay.

<i>Cleome</i> Genus of flowering plants

Cleome is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cleomaceae, commonly known as spider flowers, spider plants, spider weeds, or bee plants. Previously, it had been placed in the family Capparaceae, until DNA studies found the Cleomaceae genera to be more closely related to the Brassicaceae than the Capparaceae. Cleome and clammyweed can sometimes be confused.

<i>Corchorus olitorius</i> Species of flowering plant

Jute mallow or Nalita jute is a species of shrub in the family Malvaceae. Together with C. capsularis it is the primary source of jute fiber. The leaves and young fruits are used as a vegetable, the dried leaves are used for tea and as a soup thickener, and the seeds are edible.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Napa cabbage</span> Subspecies of flowering plant

Napa cabbage is a type of Chinese cabbage originating near the Beijing region of China that is widely used in East Asian cuisine. Since the 20th century, it has also become a widespread crop in Europe, the Americas and Australia. In much of the world, it is referred to as "Chinese cabbage". In Australia it is sometimes referred to as "wombok".

<i>Melothria sphaerocarpa</i> Species of fruit and plant

Melothria sphaerocarpa is a species of melon native from southern Mexico and the Dominican Republic through Central America to tropical South America. It has been introduced to western tropical Africa, where has been known under the synonym Cucumeropsis mannii, and is grown for food and as a source of oil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perennial rice</span> Varieties of rice that can grow season after season without re-seeding

Perennial rice are varieties of long-lived rice that are capable of regrowing season after season without reseeding; they are being developed by plant geneticists at several institutions. Although these varieties are genetically distinct and will be adapted for different climates and cropping systems, their lifespan is so different from other kinds of rice that they are collectively called perennial rice. Perennial rice—like many other perennial plants—can spread by horizontal stems below or just above the surface of the soil but they also reproduce sexually by producing flowers, pollen and seeds. As with any other grain crop, it is the seeds that are harvested and eaten by humans.

<i>Cleome rutidosperma</i> Species of flowering plant

Cleome rutidosperma, commonly known as fringed spider flower or purple cleome, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Cleome of the family Cleomaceae, native to tropical Africa. This species is an invasive weed throughout most lowland wet tropical areas of Asia and Australia. It is a very common weed of lawns.

<i>Cleome angustifolia</i> Species of flowering plant

Cleome angustifolia, known as golden cleome, yellow cleome or yellow mouse whiskers, is an African species of plant in the Cleomaceae family. It is common along roadsides and in disturbed areas and is eaten as vegetable locally. Swedish naturalist Peter Forsskål described C. angustifolia in 1775. It is one of three species in genus Cleome (the others being C. gynandra and C. oxalidea) that independently acquired the C4 pathway of carbon fixation. A species close to C. angustifolia, Cleome paradoxa, is C3–C4 intermediate.

References

  1. ↑ "Cleome gynandra - L." pfaf.org. 1996–2012. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
  2. ↑ "Lumnitzera racemosa Willd". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2024. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  3. ↑ "dict.cc dictionary :: Shona cabbage :: German-English translation". www.dict.cc. Retrieved 2016-07-19.
  4. ↑ "Gynandropsis gynandra". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved 28 July 2015.
  5. ↑ "Natural pesticides from a common weed launched Kaua'i's pesticide furor". 17 November 2015.
  6. 1 2 3 4 "Spider plant (Cleome gynandra)". World Vegetable Center . 25 April 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Waithaka, Kimani; Chweya, James A. (1991). Gynandropsis Gynandra (L.) Briq: A Tropical Leafy Vegetable, Its Cultivation and Utilization. Food & Agriculture Org. ISBN   978-92-5-103023-3.
  8. ↑ "Cleome gynandra L". www.plantzafrica.com. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  9. ↑ Aparadh, V. T.; Naik, V. V.; Karadge, B. A. (2012). "ANTIOXIDATIVE PROPERTIES (TPC, DPPH, FRAP, METAL CHELATING ABILITY, REDUCING POWER AND TAC) WITHIN SOME Cleome SPECIES". Annali di Botanica. 2: 49–56. doi:10.4462/annbotrm-9958.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Chweya, James A.; Mnzava, Nameus A. (1997). Cat's whiskers: Cleome gynadra L. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. Gatersleben: IPK. ISBN   978-92-9043-303-3.
  11. ↑ Pieroni, Andrea (2005). Prance, Ghillean; Nesbitt, Mark (eds.). The Cultural History of Plants. Routledge. p. 30. ISBN   0415927463.
  12. ↑ Engels, Johannes M.M. Engels (2002). Managing plant genetic diversity. Oxon, UK: CABI Pub. p. 332. ISBN   0-85199-522-5.
  13. ↑ "Cultivating cleome". Farmer's Weekly. 8 September 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2020.
  14. ↑ Mnzava, N (1990). "Studies on tropical vegetables. Part 2: Amino and fatty acid composition in seed of cleome (Gynandropsis gynandra L. Briq) selections from Zambia". Food Chemistry. 35 (4): 287–293. doi:10.1016/0308-8146(90)90018-Y.
  15. ↑ "ผักเสี้ยน สรรพคุณและประโยชน์ของผักเสี้ยน 29 ข้อ !". Archived from the original on 2016-08-15. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
  16. ↑ Lim May Lee (8 October 2017). "Maman-mia, maman leaves averted war". R.AGE. The Star . Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  17. ↑ "Cleome gynandra African Spider Flower, Spiderwisp PFAF Plant Database". pfaf.org. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
  18. ↑ Meda N.T.R. (2013-02-28). "Antioxidant activity of phenolic and flavonoid fractions of Cleome gynandra and Maerua angolensis of Burkina Faso". Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. doi:10.7324/JAPS.2013.30207.
  19. ↑ Mishra, S. S.; Moharana, S. K.; Dash, M. R. (eds.). "Review on Cleome gynandra". International Journal of Research in Pharmacy and Chemistry.
  20. ↑ Keding, G.; Weinberger, K.; Swai, I.; Mndiga, H., eds. (December 2007). Diversity, traits and use of traditional vegetables in Tanzania. Shanhua, Tainan: AVRDC - The World Vegetable Center. ISBN   978-92-9058-164-2.
  21. ↑ Sridhar, Nimmakayala; Kiran, Bondada V. V. S. Surya; Sasidhar, Donthamsetti Tharaka; Kanthal, Lakshmi Kanta (2014-03-30). "In vitro antimicrobial screening of methanolic extracts of Cleome chelidonii and Cleome gynandra". ||| Bangladesh Journal of Pharmacology |||. 9 (2): 161–166. doi: 10.3329/bjp.v9i2.17759 . ISSN   1991-0088.
  22. ↑ Urso, Valeria; Signorini, Maria Adele; Tonini, Matteo; Bruschi, Piero (2016-01-11). "Wild medicinal and food plants used by communities living in Mopane woodlands of southern Angola: Results of an ethnobotanical field investigation". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 177: 126–139. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2015.11.041. ISSN   1872-7573. PMID   26639153.
  23. ↑ Al-Asmari, Abdulrahman; Manthiri, Rajamohamed Abbas; Abdo, Nasreddien; Al-Duaiji, Fawzi Abdullah; Khan, Haseeb Ahmad (2017). "Saudi medicinal plants for the treatment of scorpion sting envenomation". Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 24 (6): 1204–1211. doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.10.010. ISSN   1319-562X. PMC   5562475 . PMID   28855813.
  24. ↑ Mnzava, N. A. (1990-01-01). "Studies on tropical vegetables. Part 2: Amino and fatty acid composition in seed of cleome (Gynandropsis gynandra L. Briq) selections from Zambia". Food Chemistry. 35 (4): 287–293. doi:10.1016/0308-8146(90)90018-Y. ISSN   0308-8146.
  25. ↑ Sen Gupta, A.; Chakrabarty, M. M. (1964). "The component fatty acids of Citrullus colocynthis seed fat". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 15 (2): 74–77. doi:10.1002/jsfa.2740150202. ISSN   0022-5142.
  26. 1 2 3 4 "Cleome gynandra". prota.prota4u.org. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  27. ↑ Staff Reporter (2020-09-08). "Cultivating cleome". Farmer's Weekly. Retrieved 2023-12-03.
  28. ↑ Schippers, R. R. (2000). African indigenous vegetables: An overview of the cultivated species. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute/ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation. ISBN   978-0-85954-515-0.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Mashamaite, Chuene Victor; Manyevere, Alen; Chakauya, Ereck (2022). "Cleome gynandra: A wonder climate-smart plant for nutritional security for millions in semi-arid areas". Frontiers in Plant Science. 13. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1003080 . ISSN   1664-462X. PMC   9538671 . PMID   36212376.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Kwarteng, A. O.; Abogoom, J.; Adu Amoah, R.; Nyadanu, D.; Ghunney, T.; Nyam, K. C.; Ziyaaba, J. Z.; Danso, E. O.; Asiedu, D. D.; Whyte, T. (2018-06-01). "Current knowledge and breeding perspectives for the spider plant (Cleome gynandra L.): a potential for enhanced breeding of the plant in Africa". Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 65 (5): 1529–1550. doi:10.1007/s10722-018-0626-5. ISSN   1573-5109. S2CID   4299943.
  31. ↑ Kutsukutsa, R. T.; Gasura, E.; Mabasa, S.; Ngadze, E. (2014-12-02). "Variability in condensed tannins and bitterness in spider plant genotypes". African Crop Science Journal. 22 (4): 275–280. ISSN   2072-6589.
  32. ↑ Omondi, Emmanuel O.; Debener, Thomas; Linde, Marcus; Abukutsa‐Onyango, Mary; Dinssa, Fekadu F.; Winkelmann, Traud (2017). Havey, M. (ed.). "Mating biology, nuclear DNA content and genetic diversity in spider plant ( Cleome gynandra ) germplasm from various African countries". Plant Breeding. 136 (4): 578–589. doi:10.1111/pbr.12485. ISSN   0179-9541.
  33. ↑ Wasonga, D. O.; Ambuko, J. L.; Chemining’wa, G. N.; Odeny, D. A.; Crampton, B. G. (2015). "Morphological Characterization and Selection of Spider Plant (Cleome Gynandra) Accessions from Kenya and South Africa". Asian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 7 (4): 36–44. doi: 10.19026/ajas.7.2198 . ISSN   2041-3882.
  34. 1 2 Makaza, William; Gasura, E; Nyakurwa, CS; Masekesa, RT (2022-02-27). "Prospects in cultivation and utilization of spiderplant (Cleome gynandra L.) in sub-Saharan Africa: A review". African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. 22 (106): 19370–19385. doi: 10.18697/ajfand.106.20040 . ISSN   1684-5374. S2CID   247162709.
  35. ↑ Mazike, Hamily Gwendoline; Chipurura, Batsirai; Macheka, Lesley (2023-09-08). "Value Addition of African Indigenous Vegetables (AIVs) and their Utilization as Food to Improve Food and Nutrition Security: A Review". Food Reviews International. 39 (8): 5164–5184. doi:10.1080/87559129.2022.2062765. ISSN   8755-9129. S2CID   248317587.
  36. ↑ USDA-NRCS: Invasive and noxious weeds
  37. ↑ Cleome gynandra: Plant threats to Pacific ecosystems Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine (Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk project (PIER) Archived 2021-04-07 at the Wayback Machine )
  38. ↑ Marshall, D.M.; Muhaidat, R.; Brown, N.J.; Liu, Z.; Stanley, S.; Griffiths, H.; Sage, R.F.; Hibberd, J.M. (2007). "Cleome, a genus closely related to Arabidopsis, contains species spanning a developmental progression from C3 to C4 photosynthesis". The Plant Journal. 51 (5): 886–896. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2007.03188.x . ISSN   0960-7412. PMID   17692080. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  39. ↑ Feodorova, T.A.; Voznesenskaya, E.V.; Edwards, G.E.; Roalson, E.H. (2010). "Biogeographic patterns of diversification and the origins of C4 in Cleome (Cleomaceae)" (PDF). Systematic Botany. 35 (4): 811–826. doi:10.1600/036364410X539880. ISSN   0363-6445. S2CID   84983697 . Retrieved 16 June 2016.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.