Container-based sanitation

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Example of a toilet used in a container-based sanitation system (urine-diverting dry toilet as marketed by the NGO SOIL in Haiti under the name of "EkoLakay") A SOIL EkoLakay toilet customer. (15921409131).jpg
Example of a toilet used in a container-based sanitation system (urine-diverting dry toilet as marketed by the NGO SOIL in Haiti under the name of "EkoLakay")

Container-based sanitation (abbreviated as CBS) refers to a sanitation system where toilets collect human excreta in sealable, removable containers (also called cartridges) that are transported to treatment facilities. [1] This type of sanitation involves a commercial service which provides certain types of portable toilets, and delivers empty containers when picking up full ones. The service transports and safely disposes of or reuses collected excreta. The cost of collection of excreta is usually borne by the users. With suitable development, support and functioning partnerships, CBS can be used to provide low-income urban populations with safe collection, transport and treatment of excrement at a lower cost than installing and maintaining sewers. [2] In most cases, CBS is based on the use of urine-diverting dry toilets.

Contents

A key benefit of container-based sanitation systems is its relative low-cost. In addition, the process assures there is no human contact with excreta. Feces can be contained, carried, transported and emptied into treatment facilities without exposing humans to pathogens.

Since 2010, container-based sanitation has typically been used in low-income settings where it is not feasible or appropriate to use or construct sewerage systems. [1] [3] This includes densely-populated urban neighborhoods, informal settlements, areas with high water tables, or where there is risk of frequent flooding.

Container-based sanitation systems are a low-cost sanitation solution. [2] They can be used in rapidly growing urban areas, refugee camps and emergency sanitation situations. They are in line with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 6 to "ensure sanitation for all by 2030". Container based sanitation is promoted since 2016 by the Container Based Sanitation Alliance.

Background

Container-based sanitation systems can be used in rapidly growing urban areas. The pressure to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6 – "to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation services for all" – is increasing. [2]

Current operators of container-based sanitation systems have developed different approaches. As of 2017, several systems are being tested for scalability. With suitable development, support and effective partnerships, some believe that container-based sanitation can be scaled up to provide more low-income urban populations with safe sanitation. Costs for containment, collection, transport and treatment of excreta are expected to be lower than the cost of sewers and water treatment plants. [2]

Overview

Example of a container-based toilet - "EkoLakay" by SOIL SOIL ekolakay.jpg
Example of a container-based toilet – "EkoLakay" by SOIL

A study by Worldbank published in 2019 states that CBS emerged as an alternative service approach for the urban poor in about 2009. [3] :vii

Container-based sanitation is usually provided as a commercial service, typically for a weekly or monthly fee for a 'household subscription', that provides toilets and regularly collects excreta. All infrastructure associated with a container-based sanitation system is typically situated above ground. Excreta-filled containers are sealed and transported by container-based sanitation service providers to a designated treatment or disposal site. Water usage is limited to the amount required for hand washing and anal cleansing. [4]

Households do not have to build their own toilets (such as pit latrines) but can sign up for a service by the CBS service provider. [3] :vii

One of the main advantages of container-based sanitation is that it is a modular system. Each aspect of the system (from technology to business model) can be adapted to fit the context.

Like pay-per-use public toilets, household subscription container-based sanitation services enable customers to discontinue usage if they so choose. The advantage of low upfront cost is another similarity to public toilets. The capital required for installing some household toilets and sanitation systems can be prohibitive. Container-based sanitation toilets can be installed with very little upfront cost.

The underlying principles of a container-based system can appear superficially similar to models of excreta management, which also contain excreta in-situ. These might be bucket toilets or pan latrines. Excreta is carried in open containers which are likely to be emptied before proper treatment. In India, the term, manual scavenging refers to emptying pit latrines.

The key distinction is that while a container-based sanitation system can include manual collection of containers, the containers or cartridges are sealed and the excreta is treated. People do not come into contact with waste throughout the entire service chain of containment, emptying, transportation, treatment and disposal or reuse. Proponents also note that users have more freedom of choice in that container-based toilets are portable and customers could choose another service provider.

Service chain

The toilet

A container-based sanitation toilet typically requires no water and can often be moved quite easily. The removable container for excreta is routinely exchanged for an empty container when it is full. The toilet bowl often has a lid. Odor is eliminated by adding a dry cover material or using a biodegradable plastic film. The goal is to eliminate human contact with feces, reduce odor and avoid attracting insects.

In most cases, but not all, container-based sanitation systems require separation of urine and excrement. Therefore, a urine-diverting dry toilet is often used. These types of toilets are simple and minimize the volume of waste in the excreta container. Diverted urine is often drained into the soil if the water table is low enough. It can also be stored long enough for pathogen die-off via desiccation or biodegredation so it can be used as plant fertilizer. [5] Solar exposure has been highly correlated with biosolids that meet EPA Class A pathogen reduction. [6] [7]

Container transport

Containers vary in size from 5 liters to 208 liters, depending on the particular system. After sealing, the containers are transported by service providers to centralized facilities where the waste is removed and processed. Containers are then disinfected before being delivered to a customer again.

Treatment, disposal and reuse

Waste processing can take many different forms, from simple pathogen reduction to full resource recovery techniques. Resource recovery from human waste collected by a container-based sanitation system is comparatively easier to convert into energy, animal feed or soil amendments. There is far less liquid to remove and treat since toilet waste has not been mixed with water from other household tasks.

Currently, the most common method of resource recovery is thermophilic composting. [8] Others options are conversion to uncarbonized and carbonized biomass fuel, using black soldier fly larvae to produce protein-rich animal feed, and anaerobic digestion for biogas production.

Applications

CBS systems may be applicably especially for poor urban populations in dense urban slums. Other applications can include areas where: [3] :38

Humanitarian response

In 2017 at the Kakuma refugee camp in Kenya, the container-based sanitation system run by Sanivation was shown to be cheaper than pit latrines, given the costs associated with installation and frequent de-sludging. [9] :2 Due to quick installation, minimal permanent infrastructure and relatively low costs, container-based sanitation proved to be a system that was easily shipped to new areas and quickly scaled to match refugee, emergency sanitation or disaster response needs. [9] :2

In response to the earthquake that struck Port-au-Prince Haiti in January 2010, the non-profit organization SOIL mounted the first large-scale humanitarian response using container-based sanitation. The organization constructed over 200 public toilets in 32 camps for internally displaced people throughout the city. Over their five-year humanitarian response program more than 20,000 people accessed these container-based sanitation toilets. Over 700 metric tons of waste was converted into compost and sold to the agricultural sector. [10] [11]

Costs

Families pay significantly less for a household subscription (that includes a toilet) compared to the cost of constructing a latrine or pour flush toilet. [1] For example, Ghana households of up to five users pay about 9 USD a month. [12]

For the public sector, container-based sanitation systems offer a cost-effective option. Low infrastructure investment relative to sewer-based sanitation systems make systems attractive. Costs are also kept down because water and energy are not needed.

Although container-based sanitation systems have shown considerable potential for cost recovery through service fees and sales of final products, the need to continue experimenting and identifying the right elements for business models and public financing remain.

Society and culture

Government approvals

Container-based sanitation has gained official recognition in Kenya as a safe and cost-effective alternative to sewers and on-site sanitation systems. However, many regions have yet to take any official stance on container-based sanitation. Some service providers are currently working together with local government partners to conduct World Health Organization Sanitation Safety Planning, which is a modular risk assessment process used to systematically understand and mitigate health-related hazards for each link of the sanitation chain.

The Container-Based Sanitation Alliance was formed in November 2016 to share information on "best practices" and collaborate on building industry standards of safety.

Examples and types

Schematic showing how container-based sanitation can achieve hygienic and productive recycling of feces SOIL cycle.jpg
Schematic showing how container-based sanitation can achieve hygienic and productive recycling of feces

The basic concept of the container-based sanitation system is being applied by various organizations and businesses around the world, differentiated mainly by the types of toilet interface used, financing models, and reuse or disposal methods.

Social enterprises as service providers

Clean Team

Clean Team is a social enterprise providing safe, affordable in-home container-based sanitation toilets for low-income families in Kumasi, Ghana. [2] [13] It began operations in 2011 as a joint venture between Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP) and Unilever. Toilets are provided at no initial cost, with a weekly charge paid by customers for a "Swap & Go" service to collect full sealed containers and replace them with clean, empty containers. [14] Clean Team transports the waste and ensures its safe disposal and treatment at a processing center owned by Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly.

Loowatt

Loowatt is an enterprise that develops safe, closed-loop container-based sanitation solutions. [15] Loowatt toilets are waterless and linked to value-generating treatment systems. Loowatt works across global markets serving diverse users, including customers at events and festivals in the UK, and urban households in low-income markets. In 2017, Loowatt toilets were being tested in five countries.

Sanergy: Fresh Life Toilet

Sanergy is a social enterprise making safe sanitation accessible and affordable in Africa's urban informal settlements where there are no sewer connections. [16] Sanergy's approach to solving the sanitation crisis involves five key steps: building a network of container-based sanitation franchises offering affordable "Fresh Life Toilets"; supporting its operating partners with access to finance, training, and marketing; collecting the waste regularly and safely removing it from the community; converting the waste into valuable end products, such as organic fertilizer, insect-based animal feed, and renewable energy; and selling the end products to Kenyan farms. As of October 2017, Sanergy serves 50,000 people daily through a network of 1,300 facilities in Nairobi.

Sanitation First: GroSan Toilet

Sanitation First, a UK and India based non-profit organization, has developed a container-based system suitable for use in India that does not contravene the country's strict manual scavenging laws. [17] The toilet, which they call a "GroSan Toilet" has an interface based around that of a urine-diverting dry toilet. Within the toilet superstructures are two spaces: one for the toilet and another for anal cleansing with water. Underneath, containers separately receive the three types of excreta: feces, urine, and anal wash water. Once full, the containers are taken to a central treatment facility. The waste products are stored, treated and disposed of safely, generally as an agricultural compost. As of November 2017 some 5,000 people were daily using these kinds of toilets in the Union Territory of Puducherry and Cuddalore, in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.

EcoLakay Toilets

The non-profit organization SOIL was established in Haiti in 2006, providing affordable household container-based sanitation services in some of the world's poorest communities. Feces collected in locally made, urine-diverting container EkoLakay toilets are transported to a composting facility, where they are safely transformed into agricultural-grade compost. This compost is then sold for agricultural application, improving both the fertility and water-holding capacity of local soils. Revenue from monthly user fees and compost sales are used to cover a part of the ongoing service costs. [18]

Sanivation

Sanivation is a social enterprise based in Kenya that partners with institutions to turn feces into a sustainable fuel. [19] Sanivation offers mobile or permanent models of their Bluebox toilet: a locally built, urine-diverting, dry container-based sanitation toilet. This waste is processed using their proprietary treatment technology, which harnesses solar-thermal energy to safely treat the waste and transform it into charcoal briquettes for sale, creating a financially sustainable and business model for sanitation services that can also be replicated.

Sanima

Sanima (previously called x-runner) is a women-led enterprise that works in Lima, Peru. [20] Operations began in early 2012, piloting a dry-toilet and waste collection system, as well as a treatment process. Sanima provides customer households with a portable dry toilet from Separett. In less than an hour, a toilet is installed in a user's home and accumulated waste is collected on a weekly basis. The waste is then safely processed into compost by Sanima. Households pay a monthly fee for the toilet rental and collection service. In the past six years, Sanima has been providing safe sanitation to hundreds of households in Lima, Peru.

Mosan

Mosan is a Swiss social enterprise active in Guatemala providing circular sanitation systems, which include the Mosan Urine-Diverting Dry Toilet for in-home use. [21] The toilet itself is mobile, contains two removable containers and a smell valve to avoid smell from urine. It is produced from PE plastics which make it easy to clean, long-lasting and aspirational for users. The Mosan services provides collection and transport of excreta and ensures safe transformation into fertilizers. The comprehensive systemic solution improves health conditions, protects the environment and water sources, while creating local business opportunities.

Packaging toilet

A packaging toilet is a dry toilet which seals all the excreta from one bowel movement into its own package. It does not use water. The smell of excreta is sealed away from other users of the toilet.

The design goes back to 1936, where it was used in Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion house. [22] That toilet used shrinkwrap plastic for packaging the waste. Other designs are currently marketed by various companies. [23]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sanitation</span> Public health conditions related to clean water and proper excreta and sewage disposal

Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage. Preventing human contact with feces is part of sanitation, as is hand washing with soap. Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the transmission of disease, especially through the fecal–oral route. For example, diarrhea, a main cause of malnutrition and stunted growth in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation. There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of sanitation, such as ascariasis, cholera, hepatitis, polio, schistosomiasis, and trachoma, to name just a few.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Composting toilet</span> Type of toilet that treats human excreta by a biological process called composting

A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet that treats human waste by a biological process called composting. This process leads to the decomposition of organic matter and turns human waste into compost-like material. Composting is carried out by microorganisms under controlled aerobic conditions. Most composting toilets use no water for flushing and are therefore called "dry toilets".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Night soil</span> Archaic term for excreta from latrines

Night soil is a historically used euphemism for human excreta collected from cesspools, privies, pail closets, pit latrines, privy middens, septic tanks, etc. This material was removed from the immediate area, usually at night, by workers employed in this trade. Sometimes it could be transported out of towns and sold on as a fertilizer.

Human waste refers to the waste products of the human digestive system, menses, and human metabolism including urine and feces. As part of a sanitation system that is in place, human waste is collected, transported, treated and disposed of or reused by one method or another, depending on the type of toilet being used, ability by the users to pay for services and other factors. Fecal sludge management is used to deal with fecal matter collected in on-site sanitation systems such as pit latrines and septic tanks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pit latrine</span> Toilet that collects human waste in a hole in the ground

A pit latrine, also known as pit toilet, is a type of toilet that collects human waste in a hole in the ground. Urine and feces enter the pit through a drop hole in the floor, which might be connected to a toilet seat or squatting pan for user comfort. Pit latrines can be built to function without water or they can have a water seal. When properly built and maintained, pit latrines can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation. This decreases the transfer of pathogens between feces and food by flies. These pathogens are major causes of infectious diarrhea and intestinal worm infections. Infectious diarrhea resulted in about 700,000 deaths in children under five years old in 2011 and 250 million lost school days. Pit latrines are a low-cost method of separating feces from people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bucket toilet</span> Basic form of a dry toilet with a bucket

A bucket toilet is a basic form of a dry toilet whereby a bucket (pail) is used to collect excreta. Usually, feces and urine are collected together in the same bucket, leading to odor issues. The bucket may be situated inside a dwelling, or in a nearby small structure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecological sanitation</span> Approach to sanitation provision which aims to safely reuse excreta in agriculture

Ecological sanitation, commonly abbreviated as ecosan, is an approach to sanitation provision which aims to safely reuse excreta in agriculture. It is an approach, rather than a technology or a device which is characterized by a desire to "close the loop", mainly for the nutrients and organic matter between sanitation and agriculture in a safe manner. One of the aims is to minimise the use of non-renewable resources. When properly designed and operated, ecosan systems provide a hygienically safe system to convert human excreta into nutrients to be returned to the soil, and water to be returned to the land. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manual scavenging</span> Term used mainly in India

Manual scavenging is a term used mainly in India for "manually cleaning, carrying, disposing of, or otherwise handling, human excreta in an insanitary latrine or in an open drain or sewer or in a septic tank or a pit". Manual scavengers usually use hand tools such as buckets, brooms and shovels. The workers have to move the excreta, using brooms and tin plates, into baskets, which they carry to disposal locations sometimes several kilometers away. The practice of employing human labour for cleaning of sewers and septic tanks is also prevalent in Bangladesh and Pakistan. These sanitation workers, called "manual scavengers", rarely have any personal protective equipment. The work is regarded as a dehumanizing practice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable sanitation</span> Sanitation system designed to meet certain criteria and to work well over the long-term

Sustainable sanitation is a sanitation system designed to meet certain criteria and to work well over the long-term. Sustainable sanitation systems consider the entire "sanitation value chain", from the experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, and reuse or disposal. The Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) includes five features in its definition of "sustainable sanitation": Systems need to be economically and socially acceptable, technically and institutionally appropriate and protect the environment and natural resources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toilet</span> Piece of hardware for the collection or disposal of human excreta

A toilet is a piece of sanitary hardware that collects human urine and feces, and sometimes toilet paper, usually for disposal. Flush toilets use water, while dry or non-flush toilets do not. They can be designed for a sitting position popular in Europe and North America with a toilet seat, with additional considerations for those with disabilities, or for a squatting posture more popular in Asia, known as a squat toilet. In urban areas, flush toilets are usually connected to a sewer system; in isolated areas, to a septic tank. The waste is known as blackwater and the combined effluent, including other sources, is sewage. Dry toilets are connected to a pit, removable container, composting chamber, or other storage and treatment device, including urine diversion with a urine-diverting toilet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sanitation worker</span> Person who is responsible for the cleaning and maintaining of a sanitation technology

A sanitation worker is a person responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying the equipment or technology at any step of the sanitation chain. This is the definition used in the narrower sense within the WASH sector. More broadly speaking, sanitation workers may also be involved in cleaning streets, parks, public spaces, sewers, stormwater drains, and public toilets. Another definition is: "The moment an individual’s waste is outsourced to another, it becomes sanitation work." Some organizations use the term specifically for municipal solid waste collectors, whereas others exclude the workers involved in management of solid waste sector from its definition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arborloo</span> Composting toilet

An arborloo is a simple type of composting toilet in which feces are collected in a shallow pit and a fruit tree is later planted in the fertile soil of the full pit. Arborloos have: a pit like a pit latrine but less deep; a concrete, ferrocement or other strong floor; a superstructure to provide privacy; and possibly a ring beam to protect the pit from collapsing. The pit should remain well above the water table in the soil, so as to not contaminate groundwater.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urine diversion</span> Separate collection of human urine and feces at the point of their production

Urine diversion, also called urine separation or source separation, refers to the separate collection of human urine and feces at the point of their production, i.e. at the toilet or urinal. Separation of urine from feces allows human waste to be treated separately and used as a potential resource. Applications are typically found where connection to a sewer-based sanitation system is not available or areas where water supplies are limited.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dry toilet</span> Toilet that operates without flush water

A dry toilet is a toilet which, unlike a flush toilet, does not use flush water. Dry toilets do not use water to move excreta along or block odors. They do not produce sewage, and are not connected to a sewer system or septic tank. Instead, excreta falls through a drop hole.

Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods or SOIL is an American nonprofit developmental aid organization co-founded by Sasha Kramer and Sarah Brownell in 2006. Its goal is to develop integrated approaches to the problems of poverty, poor public health, agricultural productivity, and environmental destruction in Haiti. SOIL's efforts have focused on the community-identified priority of increasing access to ecological sanitation, where human wastes are converted into compost. More than 20,000 Haitians are currently using SOIL ecological sanitation toilets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Urine-diverting dry toilet</span> Dry toilet with separate collection of feces and urine without any flush water

A urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) is a type of dry toilet with urine diversion that can be used to provide safe, affordable sanitation in a variety of contexts worldwide. The separate collection of feces and urine without any flush water has many advantages, such as odor-free operation and pathogen reduction by drying. While dried feces and urine harvested from UDDTs can be and routinely are used in agriculture, many UDDT installations do not apply any sort of recovery scheme. The UDDT is an example of a technology that can be used to achieve a sustainable sanitation system. This dry excreta management system is an alternative to pit latrines and flush toilets, especially where water is scarce, a connection to a sewer system and centralized wastewater treatment plant is not feasible or desired, fertilizer and soil conditioner are needed for agriculture, or groundwater pollution should be minimized.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reuse of human excreta</span> Safe, beneficial use of human excreta mainly in agriculture (after treatment)

Reuse of human excreta is the safe, beneficial use of treated human excreta after applying suitable treatment steps and risk management approaches that are customized for the intended reuse application. Beneficial uses of the treated excreta may focus on using the plant-available nutrients that are contained in the treated excreta. They may also make use of the organic matter and energy contained in the excreta. To a lesser extent, reuse of the excreta's water content might also take place, although this is better known as water reclamation from municipal wastewater. The intended reuse applications for the nutrient content may include: soil conditioner or fertilizer in agriculture or horticultural activities. Other reuse applications, which focus more on the organic matter content of the excreta, include use as a fuel source or as an energy source in the form of biogas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Omni processor</span> Group of physical, biological or chemical treatments to process fecal sludge

Omni processor is a term coined in 2012 by staff of the Water, Sanitation, Hygiene Program of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to describe a range of physical, biological or chemical treatments to remove pathogens from human-generated fecal sludge, while simultaneously creating commercially valuable byproducts. Air from feces are separated from common air, then these collected air from feces are compressed like (LPG) and used as fuel. An omni processor mitigates unsafe methods in developing countries of capturing and treating human waste, which annually result in the spread of disease and the deaths of more than 1.5 million children.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fecal sludge management</span> Collection, transport, and treatment of fecal sludge from onsite sanitation systems

Fecal sludge management (FSM) is the storage, collection, transport, treatment and safe end use or disposal of fecal sludge. Together, the collection, transport, treatment and end use of fecal sludge constitute the "value chain" or "service chain" of fecal sludge management. Fecal sludge is defined very broadly as what accumulates in onsite sanitation systems and specifically is not transported through a sewer. It is composed of human excreta, but also anything else that may go into an onsite containment technology, such as flushwater, cleansing materials, menstrual hygiene products, grey water, and solid waste. Fecal sludge that is removed from septic tanks is called septage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emergency sanitation</span> Management and technical processes required to provide sanitation in emergency situations

Emergency sanitation is the management and technical processes required to provide sanitation in emergency situations. Emergency sanitation is required during humanitarian relief operations for refugees, people affected by natural disasters and internally displaced persons. There are three phases of emergency response: Immediate, short term and long term. In the immediate phase, the focus is on managing open defecation, and toilet technologies might include very basic latrines, pit latrines, bucket toilets, container-based toilets, chemical toilets. The short term phase might also involve technologies such as urine-diverting dry toilets, septic tanks, decentralized wastewater systems. Providing handwashing facilities and management of fecal sludge are also part of emergency sanitation.

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