Energy poverty and gender

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Energy poverty is defined as lacking access to the affordable sustainable energy service. [1] Geographically, it is unevenly distributed in developing and developed countries. [2] In 2019, there were an estimated 770 million people who have no access to electricity, with approximately 95% distributed in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. [3]

Contents

In developing countries, poor women and girls living in the rural areas are significantly affected by energy poverty, because they are usually responsible for providing the primary energy for households. [4] In developed countries, old women living alone are mostly affected by energy poverty due to the low income and high cost of energy service. [5]

Even though energy access is an important climate change adaptation tool especially for maintaining health (i.e. access to air conditioning, information etc.), a systematic review published in 2019 found that research does not account for these effects onto vulnerable populations like women. [6]

Energy poverty has a disproportionate impact on women. Without access to other energy sources, 13% of the global population is compelled to collect wood for fuel. Out of the population, women and girls contribute to more than 85% of the work involved in gathering wood for fuel. [7] [8] [9]

In developing countries

Domestic responsibilities

In developing countries, energy poverty has significant gender characteristics. [4] Approximately 70% of the 1.3 billion population in the developing countries living in poverty are women. [10] Women living in rural areas are usually responsible for housework, including gathering fuels and water, cooking, farming etc. Studies in India indicates that rural women provide approximately 92% of total household energy supply, and 85% of their energy for cooking is provided by the biomass from forests or fields. [11]

Health impacts from energy consumption

Energy poverty in rural households causes the health problems of women and children. One health problem is caused by indoor air pollution from traditional stoves. Study indicated that cooking with biomass is predicted to lead to 1.5 million deaths per year by 2030. [4] The other health risks are caused by the heavy workload of collecting fuels and exposed to malnutrition. Meanwhile, the scarcity of fuel makes them less likely to use the fuels for cooking waters, which might increase risk of water-borne diseases. [4]

Also powering of medical equipment and stools, storage of blood and vaccines, performing of basic health procedures after dark are all possible on reliable energy supply. [12] Unreliable energy supply prevent patient care at night especially pregnant women during delivery and those undergoing emergency caesarean section at night. All these result to 95% of maternal mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. [13]

Time poverty

Energy poverty further affects women by putting them into the situation of "time poverty", which refers to the lack of time for resting, leisure, working outsides, getting education etc. It is the consequence of spending a long time gathering the fuels to supply the domestic energy use. The forest degradation caused by climate change might exaggerate the current problem. [4]

Participation in decision-making

Also, energy poverty and gender menifest in the area of decision making and participation within the household. Studies have shown that in the rural areas in developing countries, men usually have more power in making decisions in purchasing energy devices or new technologies. [14] This is because men and women have different and distinct perception about energy needs.Excluding women from participating public discussion and decision-making process is likely to lead to the failure in addressing the effects of energy poverty on women.

Energy Poverty and Education

Energy poverty affects teaching and learning. Lack of access to energy reduces children performance and attendance. [15]

Example

In sub-Saharan African countries, energy poverty is especially challenging, due to the high cost of extending grid electricity in existing scattered rural settlement. [16] For example, in Tanzania, energy poverty is affecting the livelihood of the majority, with only 15.5% of the population has access to electricity. [17] The lack of electricity leads to the missing of efficient energy services like cooking, lighting etc. Hence the basic capabilities for development, like education, health, transportation are restricted. [18] In face of energy poverty, the burden of supplying household energy use disproportionately lies on women than men. A case study in Tanzania examines impact of a women-oriented solar lighting social enterprise project on health, education, livelihood and gender equality. [14] The results indicate that increasing the accessibility to energy service for women, could contribute to empowering women, children and local families’ development.

In developed countries

In developed countries, lone and old women are affected disproportionately by energy poverty. [5] There are more women living alone than men because of their relatively longer life expectancy. Those older women usually have less pensions to support themselves, because they worked mostly inside the house. The rise in energy cost affects the affordability of heating and cooling service at home. Data from the UK Office for National Statistics [19] indicates that, women have higher Excess Winter Mortality (EWM) more than men, and there is an increase of EWM from 8.2% to 12.4% between 2013 and 2012, among women under 65. Furthermore, the increasing energy price, relative low income, and together energy-inefficient houses contribute to energy poverty in developed countries. [20]

Components

There are gender gaps in the energy labor market, energy-related education and decision-making process in developed countries. [5] In the European Union, men dominant the energy sector with 77.9% in the workforce. Studies show that the under-representation is attributed to the following reasons: lack of necessary skills caused by the energy education gap, the perception of stereotypical men-domain energy sectors, and lack of opportunities for women working in energy sectors. The gendered energy education is related to the traditional images of ‘feminine’ or ‘masculine’ subjects as well as the lack of mentoring programs engaging female students to study in science subjects, like energy. Women are also under-represented in the decision-making process in energy sections in developed countries. A study conducted in Germany, Sweden and Spain shows that there is no female staff work in management group or as board member in the 295 energy companies they investigated in 2010. [21] Similar situation is observed in the public energy sector, with 82.7% of high-level position occupied by men, though it is better in Nordic countries than in Mediterranean countries. Those gender gaps contribute to the "gender blindness" in the energy policies in developed countries.

Example

Caitlin Robinson (2019) conducted a study on gender and poverty in England. [20] With the socio-spatial analysis, he argued that energy poverty could increase the gendered vulnerabilities. Five dimensions of gendered socio-spatial energy vulnerability are examined, [20] including

The result indicated that energy poverty is connected with economic and social activities and health, but more complex effects of energy vulnerability and gender should be analyzed at the household level, since it is relatively individual.

Responses

Some research indicates that investing in low-emission energy technologies can increase the accessibility to modern energy services, which will benefit the women living in energy poverty. The low-emission technologies are believed to be able to free poor women from fuel collection and drudgery, protect them from the air pollution caused by burning biomass, and enable them to have time for education and participating in public discussion etc. [4]

Other research argues that merely technologies approach is not enough, and suggests engaging local women in the decision-making process for locally appropriate energy programs. [22]

Pueyo & Maestre (2019) further studied whether men and women benefit differently in electrification. The results indicate that electrification benefits women in accessing paid works, but not as much as men. Women still have relatively lower quality works after electrification. Policies that address gender mainstreaming are suggested to consider both women's existing domestic work, and their accessibility to profitable activities, hence empowering them for long-term development. [23]

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Developing country</span> Nation with a lower living standard relative to more developed countries

A developing country is a sovereign state with a less developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category. The terms low and middle-income country (LMIC) and newly emerging economy (NEE) are often used interchangeably but refers only to the economy of the countries. The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita: high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low income countries. Least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Millennium Development Goals</span> Eight international development goals for the year 2015 by the United Nations

In the United Nations, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals for the year 2015 created following the Millennium Summit, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration. These were based on the OECD DAC International Development Goals agreed by Development Ministers in the "Shaping the 21st Century Strategy". The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) succeeded the MDGs in 2016.

Feminization of poverty refers to a trend of increasing inequality in living standards between men and women due to the widening gender gap in poverty. This phenomenon largely links to how women and children are disproportionately represented within the lower socioeconomic status community in comparison to men within the same socioeconomic status. Causes of the feminization of poverty include the structure of family and household, employment, sexual violence, education, climate change, "femonomics" and health. The traditional stereotypes of women remain embedded in many cultures restricting income opportunities and community involvement for many women. Matched with a low foundation income, this can manifest to a cycle of poverty and thus an inter-generational issue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Africa</span>

African environmental issues are caused by human impacts on the natural environment and affect humans and nearly all forms of life. Issues include deforestation, soil degradation, air pollution, water pollution, garbage pollution, climate change and water scarcity. These issues result in environmental conflict and are connected to broader social struggles for democracy and sovereignty.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy poverty</span> Lack of access to energy services such as electricity and heating

In developing countries and some areas of more developed countries, energy poverty is lack of access to modern energy services in the home. Today, 759 million people lack access to consistent electricity and 2.6 billion people use dangerous and inefficient cooking systems. Their well-being is negatively affected by very low consumption of energy, use of dirty or polluting fuels, and excessive time spent collecting fuel to meet basic needs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Household air pollution</span> Air pollution that is mostly caused by cooking with polluting fuels

Household air pollution (HAP) is a significant form of indoor air pollution mostly relating to cooking and heating methods used in developing countries. Since much of the cooking is carried out with biomass fuel, in the form of wood, charcoal, dung, and crop residue, in indoor environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily women and children face serious health risks. In total, about three billion people in developing countries are affected by this problem. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths. The Global Burden of Disease study estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million. The problem is closely related to energy poverty and cooking.

Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. This inequality can be caused by gender discrimination or sexism. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology, or cultural norms prevalent in the society. Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded, while others appear to be social constructs. While current policies around the world cause inequality among individuals, it is women who are most affected. Gender inequality weakens women in many areas such as health, education, and business life. Studies show the different experiences of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political affiliation. Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures and also affects non-binary people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Uganda</span> Overview of the status of women in Uganda

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Renewable energy in developing countries</span> Overview of the use of renewable energy in several developing countries

Renewable energy in developing countries is an increasingly used alternative to fossil fuel energy, as these countries scale up their energy supplies and address energy poverty. Renewable energy technology was once seen as unaffordable for developing countries. However, since 2015, investment in non-hydro renewable energy has been higher in developing countries than in developed countries, and comprised 54% of global renewable energy investment in 2019. The International Energy Agency forecasts that renewable energy will provide the majority of energy supply growth through 2030 in Africa and Central and South America, and 42% of supply growth in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rural poverty</span> Poverty in rural areas, which are often less developed than urban areas worldwide

Rural poverty refers to situations where people living in non-urban regions are in a state or condition of lacking the financial resources and essentials for living. It takes account of factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the marginalization and economic disadvantage found there. Rural areas, because of their small, spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers.

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Project Gaia is a U.S.-based non-governmental, non-profit organization engaged in developing alcohol-based fuel markets for household use in Ethiopia and other developing countries. The organization identifies alcohol fuels as a potential alternative to traditional cooking methods, which they suggest may contribute to fuel shortages, environmental issues, and public health concerns in these regions. Focusing on impoverished and marginalized communities, Project Gaia is active in Ethiopia, Nigeria, Brazil, Haiti, and Madagascar. The organization is also planning to expand its projects to additional countries.

Energy use and development in Africa varies widely across the continent, with some African countries exporting energy to neighbors or the global market, while others lack even basic infrastructures or systems to acquire energy. The World Bank has declared 32 of the 48 nations on the continent to be in an energy crisis. Energy development has not kept pace with rising demand in developing regions, placing a large strain on the continent's existing resources over the first decade of the new century. From 2001 to 2005, GDP for over half of the countries in Sub Saharan Africa rose by over 4.5% annually, while generation capacity grew at a rate of 1.2%.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender and food security</span>

Gender inequality both leads to and is a result of food insecurity. According to estimates, women and girls make up 60% of the world's chronically hungry and little progress has been made in ensuring the equal right to food for women enshrined in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Women face discrimination both in education and employment opportunities and within the household, where their bargaining power is lower. On the other hand, gender equality is described as instrumental to ending malnutrition and hunger. Women tend to be responsible for food preparation and childcare within the family and are more likely to be spent their income on food and their children's needs. The gendered aspects of food security are visible along the four pillars of food security: availability, access, utilization and stability, as defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender inequality in Liberia</span>

The extent of gender inequalities varies throughout Liberia in regard to status, region, rural/urban areas, and traditional cultures. In general, women in Liberia have less access to education, health care, property, and justice when compared to men. Liberia suffered two devastating civil wars from 1989–1996 and 1999–2003. The wars left Liberia nearly destroyed with minimal infrastructure and thousands dead. Liberia has a Human Development Report ranking of 174 out of 187 and a Gender Inequality Index rank of 154 out of 159.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and gender</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sustainable Development Goal 7</span> Seventh of 17 Sustainable Development Goals to achieve affordable and clean energy for all by 2035

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Energy poverty and cooking</span> Issues involving access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking

One aspect of energy poverty is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries routinely cook with fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene. Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmful household air pollution, resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to the World Health Organization (WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.

References

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  2. ↑ Munien, S. & Ahmed, F. (2012). A gendered perspective on energy poverty and livelihoods–Advancing the Millennium Development Goals in developing countries. Agenda, 26(1), 112–123.
  3. ↑ IEA (International Energy Agency). 2015. "World Energy Outlook." Paris: OECD/IEA.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 United Nations Development Programme. (2013). Gender and energy. Retrieved January 15, 2020, from https://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/gender/Gender%5B%5D and Environment/PB4-AP-Gender-and-Energy.pdf
  5. 1 2 3 European Institution for Gender Equality (EIGE). (2017). Gender and energy. Retrieved from https://eige.europa.eu/publications/gender-and-energy Archived 2020-09-21 at the Wayback Machine
  6. ↑ Jessel, Sonal; Sawyer, Samantha; Hernández, Diana (2019). "Energy, Poverty, and Health in Climate Change: A Comprehensive Review of an Emerging Literature". Frontiers in Public Health. 7: 357. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2019.00357 . ISSN   2296-2565. PMC   6920209 . PMID   31921733.
  7. ↑ Bank, European Investment (2024-03-07). "EIB Gender equality and women's economic empowerment - Overview 2024".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ↑ "Gender perspective on access to energy in the EU" (PDF).
  9. ↑ "Gender and energy" (PDF).
  10. ↑ Denton, F. (2002). Climate change vulnerability, impacts, and adaptation: Why does gender matter?. Gender & Development, 10(2), 10–20.
  11. ↑ World Bank. (2011). ‘Gender and Climate Change: Three Things You Should Know’, fact sheet, 2011a, available at: http://go.worldbank.org/TN0KYRX8Q0%5B%5D (accessed 22 October 2012).
  12. ↑ Sohna, Aminatta Ngum (2016). "Empowering women in Africa through access to substainable energy" (PDF). Africa Development Bank. Retrieved 2023-03-20.
  13. ↑ "Maternal Mortality" (PDF). World Health Organisation Fact Sheet. 2015.
  14. 1 2 Leslie Gray, Alaina Boyle, Erika Francks & Victoria Yu (2019) The power of small-scale solar: gender, energy poverty, and entrepreneurship in Tanzania, Development in Practice, 29:1, 26–39, DOI: 10.1080/09614524.2018.1526257
  15. ↑ Sule, Ibrahim Kekere; Yusuf, Abdulmalik M.; Salihu, Muhammad-Kabir (March 2022). "Impact of energy poverty on education inequality and infant mortality in some selected African countries". Energy Nexus. 5: 100034. doi: 10.1016/j.nexus.2021.100034 . S2CID   244853164.
  16. ↑ Karekezi, S., and W. Kithyoma. 2002. "Renewable Energy Strategies for Rural Africa: Is a PV-led Renewable Energy Strategy the Right Approach for Providing Modern Energy to the Rural Poor of Sub-Saharan Africa?" Energy Policy 30 (11): 1071–1086.
  17. ↑ World Bank. 2017. "World Bank Data." Accessed July 19, 2017. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS Archived 2012-04-12 at the Wayback Machine .
  18. ↑ Harrison, K., A. Scott, and R. Hogarth. 2016. Accelerating Access to Electricity in Africa With Off-Grid Solar: The Impact of Solar Household Solutions. ODI Report 9. London: Overseas Development Institute.
  19. ↑ ‘Excess Winter Mortality in England and Wales, 2012/13 (Provisional) and 2011/12 (Final)’, Statistical bulletin, 26 November 2013, Office for National Statistics, United Kingdom, 2013. http://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeath-sandmarriages/deaths/bulletins/excesswintermortalityinenglandandwal%5B%5D es/2013-11-26
  20. 1 2 3 Robinson, C. (2019). Energy poverty and gender in England: A spatial perspective. Geoforum.
  21. ↑ EIGE (2012), Review of the implementation in the EU of area K of the Beijing Platform for Action: Women and the environment, Gender equality and climate change, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.http://eige.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/Gender-Equality-and-Climate-Change-Report.pdf Archived 2021-11-23 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ↑ Cecelski E. (2004) ‘Re-thinking gender and energy: Old and new directions’, in ENERGIA/EASE Discussion Paper, p. 41, 49
  23. ↑ Pueyo, A. & Maestre, M. (2019). Linking energy access, gender and poverty: A review of the literature on productive uses of energy. Energy Research & Social Science, 53, 170–181.
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