Environmental impact of the Gulf wars

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Disabled tank and burning oil field Disabled Iraqi T-54A, T-55, Type 59 or Type 69 tank and burning Kuwaiti oil field.jpg
Disabled tank and burning oil field

The First Gulf War (1990) and the 2003 Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, brought about significant environmental degradation with several facets still negatively impacting the area today. As a frame of reference, the Persian Gulf countries consist of the following states: the UAE, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Kuwait, with the latter two facing the most environmental damage following the two wars due to their central position in the conflict.

Contents

As is the case in similar situations involving modern warfare, many of the environmental issues can be traced back to the deployment of chemical agents which in turn have massively impacted the health of both military and civilian individuals involved in the conflict. [1]

This article presents the short and long-term effects of the First and Second Gulf Wars on the environment as well as the impacts on the health of those involved in the conflict.

Notable Events During the Gulf Wars and their Environmental Impact

First Gulf War

2003 Invasion of Iraq (Second Gulf War)

The effects

Environment

The environmental impact of the Gulf War of 1991 was unprecedented. Huge quantities of crude oil, going up to approximately 3.5 million tons, were released into the desert, while another 800,000 tons of oil spilled into the Persian Gulf. [12]  

Consequently, the burning oil wells created 250 oil lakes covering approximately 50 square kilometers in the desert due to the sixty million barrels of oil that came from the burning oil wells. [13]

As a result, between six and eight million barrels of oil are estimated to be at the core of marine environment pollution.

By the February 27th ceasefire, the Saudi coast had suffered extensive damage over a distance of more than 100 miles. In this regard, oil, up to 15 inches deep in certain areas, devastated the nesting grounds of endangered sea turtles, birds, fisheries, and shrimp-spawning areas. [14] Beaches, tide pools, and seagrass beds had been damaged, and thousands of rare herons, flamingos, and other bird species were killed. [14]

Furthermore, the Sea Island Terminal oil spill on January 25, 1991, off the Saudi coast, was estimated to cover a stretch of approximately 10–15 miles during the Gulf War ceasefire. [15] The second major oil slick occurred off the Kuwaiti-Saudi coast, also originating from the Mina al Bakr offshore terminal of Iraq, with a length of about 10 miles. By February 26, 1991, more than 600 oil wells were burning, thereby forming a thick smoke that engulfed the region and resulted in a significant drop in the temperatures in Kuwait.

Moreover, the environmental repercussions extended over 1000 kilometres away to southern Turkey, where black acidic rain fell in March 1991. This rain was a result of carbon particles from the burning Kuwaiti oil fires, carried by winds and affecting countries like Iraq, Iran, and Syria.   In addition, Iran experienced water supply and crop irrigation issues due to the black rain, as well. [16]

The 1991 Gulf War entailed further environmental consequences, such as damage to sewage treatment plants in Kuwait, leading to the release of nearly 50,000 cubic meters of raw sewage into Kuwait Bay daily. [17]

Eventually, approximately 800 oil wells in Kuwait kept on burning in Kuwait for several months, leading to the release of pollutants such as nitrogen oxide, radium, hydrogen carbons, and hydrogen sulfide. [13]

The atmospheric pollution resulting from the oil fires had health implications for humans, as it led to an increase in oil-related heavy metals in the brain, including indicating nickel, vanadium, selenium, and cobalt in brain tumours, which can cause DNA damage and lipid peroxidation, as evidenced by airborne dust samples collected after the war. [13]

Health

The use of chemicals agents

During the Gulf Wars, the populations were exposed to chemical agents. Indeed, chemicals agent, for example Depleted Uranium (DU), was used for the first time during the first Gulf War in the tank kinetic energy penetrator or autocannon rounds.

After the Gulf Wars, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and various research organizations have been assessing potential causes of health issues among veterans, including exposure to chemical and biological weapons.

Nonetheless, the use of chemical agents by both the US Army and Iraqi forces remains to date a subject of debate. In 1997, the US government published a report that states that:

"The US Intelligence Community (IC) has assessed that Iraq did not use chemical weapons during the Gulf War. However, based on a comprehensive review of intelligence information and relevant information made available by the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM), we conclude that chemical warfare (CW) agent was released as a result of the US postwar demolition of rockets with chemical warheads in a bunker (called Bunker 73 by Iraq) and a pit in an area known as Khamisiyah." [18]

For example, over 100,000 Gulf War Veterans have been exposed to these nerve agents chemicals during the demolition of a munitions storage depot in Khamisiyah. [19]

A study by the Boston School of Public Health has revealed a correlation between veterans deployed in Iraq and the reporting of post-war health symptoms. After their return from the Persian Gulf War, many veterans experienced health symptoms and medical problems. This report states that:

"Persian Gulf-deployed veterans were more likely to report neurological, pulmonary, gastrointestinal, cardiac, dermatological, musculoskeletal, psychological and neuropsychological system symptoms than German veterans." [20]

Gulf War Syndrome

The US Department of Veterans Affairs and the National Academy of Science (NAS) released multiple reports on the Gulf war illnesses, following the conclusion of the Gulf Wars.

According to a 2007 report on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) [21] Veterans in Iraq were exposed to various chemical agents including DU, pesticides, nerve gas sarin, and multiple vaccinations.

The report from Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) [22] established the link between neurological veterans' illnesses and the exposure neurotoxins.

The term "Gulf War illness" or "Gulf War syndrome" refers to the illness and neurological symptoms as "fatigue, muscle and joint pain, headaches, loss of memory and poor sleep" [23] experienced by veterans after the 1991 Gulf War. This syndrome was associated with different causes such as exposure to depleted uranium, sarin nerve agents, organophosphate pesticides, and to a lesser extent oil well fire, Anthrax vaccine and combat stress.

Cancer

In the decade following Gulf War I, veterans and Iraqi physicians reported a sharp increase in severe health problems, including cancer, which were attributed to the use of depleted uranium bullets by the United States. [24] Depleted uranium is known to be carcinogenic and has been associated with neurologic health problems. [25] [26]

As a consequence of weapons testing, military research, and the extensive use of approximately 1200 tonnes of munitions during the war, Iraq was left grappling with depleted uranium contamination, resulting in elevated levels in the soil. [26] Therefore, by 2012, the incidence of lung and breast cancer, Leukemia, and Lymphoma cases had doubled to tripled in many areas of Iraq. The presence of contaminated soil likely affected human health through the food chain, presenting long-term radiation hazards. [26]

Post-traumatic Stress disorder

In 1995, Kuwait witnessed a notable incidences of posttraumatic stress disorder. Approximately 27 percent of the population in Kuwait have this psychiatric disorder. 66 percent of those with diagnosable post-traumatic disorder were still dreaming nightmares about some war events. In addition, many boys were dreaming different dreams about Saddam trying to kill them or hurt their families. A documentary movie about affected families was made. A boy saw his father tortured and then killed by the Iraqi soldiers; after this, the boy lost the ability to speak. Another affected victim has speech problems because Iraqi soldiers forced her to watch her two sons killed.

Fertility Problems

Source: [27]

Some studies point out a link between fertility problems and the Gulf wars. US veterans from the Gulf Wars faced risks of infertility. [28] Indeed, research shows that deployed veterans during the Gulf wars faced issues concerning fertility, conceptions or live births, and pregnancy fathered problems [28]

In times of war, the fertility of the population is also affected. Researches show that the fertility trend in Iraq was in decline, and the war emphasize this trend. [29] Moreover, the use of chemicals weapons affected the population fertility. The case of Fallujah is an example of the impacts of the war on fertility. The city of Fallujah had been bombed during the war and chemical agents were used. Today, doctors and researchers found that there is an increase in congenital defects and infertility. [30] Many children were born with nervous system problems.

Cleanup

The Persian Gulf countries have a proven record of cooperating towards cleaning up the Gulf ruin and preventing future havoc.

For instance, over the years volunteer Kuwaiti divers have been cleaning the benthos. [31] They have extracted two cannons and seven shells. It was common to find a turtle caught in fishing nets. Saudi Aramco was one of the largest contributors to the cleaning process. It provided support to other Oil-response teams, distributing protection equipment and materials. Moreover, many Saudi Aramco employees were involved in volunteer teams to clean up marine life.

The Royal Commission in Jubail has established a new program to monitor oil spill or any other chemical materials. In addition, it studies the possibility of oil leakage and how it can be stopped in an emergency. Also, Aramco stores additional anti-pollution equipment and ships.

Furthermore, the Gulf Area cleaning endeavours persist nowadays and further extend to the international agenda and fall within the efforts to meet the 14th sustainable development goals of the United Nations 2030 Agenda. [32]

Within a span of two months after the end of the 1990-1991 Gulf War, an unprecedented post-war mechanism called the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) was established, marking a significant development in the history of international armed conflicts. The primary objective of this mechanism was not only to assist neighbouring nations in recovering from the extensive personal and financial damages incurred during the war but also to facilitate the restoration of the environmental harm that had been inflicted. [33]

In fact, the Gulf Wars gave the impetus to foster public debate about further law-making in the international environmental field and filling the gaps of a legal regime considered unsatisfactory by the environmental community. [34]

In this perspective, after the conflict, it was expected that neighboring countries would receive reparations for the damages caused, and Iraq's oil revenues were seen as a viable source of funding. To address this, the UNCC was established with the objective of processing claims and providing compensation for losses and harm resulting from Iraq's illegal invasion and occupation of Kuwait. The 2.69 million claims that were processed were categorized based on the claimant and the type of compensation sought. [35]

Other than multiple aspects such as personal injuries, fatalities, financial losses suffered by individuals, expenses incurred by neighbouring countries for hosting refugees, as well as damage to businesses and government properties, environmental damage and depletion of natural resources also fell under the "F4" sub-category. [36]

Through various expert panels, evaluated 170 F4 claims originating from 12 countries (Australia, Canada, Germany, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the UK, and the USA) and awarded a total of US$5,261 million to 10 countries. This amount constituted only 6.2% of the total claims made and was paid out in five instalments over a span of five years. [37]

However, even though claims from the Netherlands and Turkey were unsuccessful and did not receive compensation, stringent oversight measures were implemented to ensure that the funds were utilized as specified, with regular reporting being conducted. To this date, all payments have now been concluded, although certain projects have taken more time than others to be finalized. [38]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuwaiti oil fires</span> Oil wells burned by the Iraqi military during the Gulf War

The Kuwaiti oil fires were caused by the Iraqi military setting fire to a reported 605 to 732 oil wells along with an unspecified number of oil filled low-lying areas, such as oil lakes and fire trenches, as part of a scorched earth policy while retreating from Kuwait in 1991 due to the advances of US-led coalition forces in the Gulf War. The fires were started in January and February 1991, and the first oil well fires were extinguished in early April 1991, with the last well capped on November 6, 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geography of Saudi Arabia</span>

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a country situated in West Asia, the largest country on the Arabian Peninsula, bordering the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Its extensive coastlines provide great leverage on shipping through the Persian Gulf and the Suez Canal. The kingdom occupies 80% of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country's boundaries with the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Oman, and the Republic of Yemen are undefined, so the exact size of the country remains unknown. The Saudi government estimate is at 2,217,949 square kilometres, while other reputable estimates vary between 2,149,690 and 2,240,000 sq. kilometres. Less than 7% of the total area is suitable for cultivation, and in the early 1960s, population distribution varied greatly among the towns of the eastern and western coastal areas, the densely populated interior oases, and the vast, almost empty deserts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Depleted uranium</span> Uranium with lower content of 235U

Depleted uranium is uranium with a lower content of the fissile isotope 235U than natural uranium. Natural uranium contains about 0.72% 235U, while the DU used by the U.S. Department of Defense contains 0.3% 235U or less. The less radioactive and non-fissile 238U constitutes the main component of depleted uranium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War</span> 1990–1991 conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition

The Gulf War was an armed conflict between Iraq and a 42-country coalition led by the United States. The coalition's efforts against Iraq were carried out in two key phases: Operation Desert Shield, which marked the military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991; and Operation Desert Storm, which began with the aerial bombing campaign against Iraq on 17 January 1991 and came to a close with the American-led liberation of Kuwait on 28 February 1991.

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1984.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Khafji</span> 1991 battle of the Gulf War

The Battle of Khafji was the first major ground engagement of the Gulf War. It took place in and around the Saudi Arabian city of Khafji, from 29 January to 1 February 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War oil spill</span> 1991 Iraqi action in the Persian Gulf

The Gulf War oil spill, or the "Persian Gulf oil spill", was one of the largest oil spills in history, resulting from the Gulf War in 1991. In January 1991, Iraqi forces allegedly began dumping oil into the Persian Gulf to stop a U.S. coalition-led water landing on their shores. Despite quite high initial estimates, the spill likely was about 4,000,000 US barrels. Within the following months of the spill, most clean-up was targeted at recovering oil, and very little clean-up was done on Saudi Arabia’s highly-affected beaches. An initial study in 1993 found that the spill will not have long-term environmental consequences, but many studies since 1991 have concluded the opposite, claiming that the spill is responsible for environmental damage to coastline sediments and marine species and ecosystems. Considered an act of environmental terrorism, the spill was a heated political move that had implications for the larger Gulf War and temporarily damaged Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iraqi invasion of Kuwait</span> Beginning of the 1990–1991 Gulf War

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait began on 2 August 1990 and marked the beginning of the Gulf War. After defeating the State of Kuwait on 4 August 1990, Iraq went on to militarily occupy the country for the next seven months. The invasion was condemned internationally, and the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) adopted numerous resolutions urging Iraq to withdraw from Kuwaiti territory. The Iraqi military, however, continued to occupy Kuwait and defied all orders by the UNSC. After initially establishing the "Republic of Kuwait" as a puppet state, Iraq annexed the entire country on 28 August 1990; northern Kuwait became the Saddamiyat al-Mitla' District and was merged into the existing Basra Governorate, while southern Kuwait was carved out as the all-new Kuwait Governorate. By November 1990, the adoption of UNSC Resolution 678 officially issued Iraq an ultimatum to withdraw unconditionally by 15 January 1991 or else be removed by "all necessary means" from Kuwaiti territory. In anticipation of a war with Iraq, the UNSC authorized the assembly of an American-led military coalition.

The United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) was created in 1991 as a subsidiary organ of the United Nations Security Council. Its mandate was to process claims and pay compensation for losses and damage suffered as a direct result of Iraq's 1990–1991 invasion and occupation of Kuwait which started the Gulf War. These losses included claims for loss of property, deaths, loss of natural resources, damage to public health and environmental damage. The work of the UNCC officially came to a close at the end of 2022.

The aftermath of Gulf War saw drastic and profoundly significant political, cultural, and social change across the Middle East and even in areas outside those that were directly involved.

Uranium in the environment is a global health concern, and comes from both natural and man-made sources. Beyond naturally occurring uranium, mining, phosphates in agriculture, weapons manufacturing, and nuclear power are anthropogenic sources of uranium in the environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iraqi chemical weapons program</span> Offensively and genocidally used chemical weapons

In violation of the Geneva Protocol of 1925, the Iraqi Army initiated two failed and one successful (1978–1991) offensive chemical weapons (CW) programs. President Saddam Hussein (1937–2006) pursued the most extensive chemical program during the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), when he waged chemical warfare against his foe. He also used chemicals in 1988 in the Al-Anfal Campaign against his civilian Kurdish population and during a popular uprising in the south in 1991.

Khamisiyah is an area in southern Iraq located approximately 350 km south-east of Baghdad, 200 km north-west of Kuwait City and 270 km north of Al Qaysumah. Khamisiyah is under the administration of the province of Dhi Qar. The area contains a few small towns, including Khamisiyah and Sahalat, with an estimated population of 8,500.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Battle of Basra (2003)</span> Coalition victory in the invasion of Iraq

The Battle of Basra lasted from 21 March to 6 April 2003 and was one of the first battles of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The British 7 Armoured Brigade fought their way into Iraq's second-largest city, Basra, on 6 April coming under constant attack by the Iraqi Army 51st Division and Fedayeen Saddam, while elements of the Parachute Regiment cleared the 'old quarter' of the city that was inaccessible to vehicles. Entering Basra had only been achieved after two weeks of conflict, which included the biggest tank battle of the war by British forces when the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards destroyed 14 Iraqi tanks on the 27 March.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of war</span> Environmental problems caused by warfare

Study of the environmental impact of war focuses on the modernization of warfare and its increasing effects on the environment. Scorched earth methods have been used for much of recorded history. However, the methods of modern warfare cause far greater devastation on the environment. The progression of warfare from chemical weapons to nuclear weapons has increasingly created stress on ecosystems and the environment. Specific examples of the environmental impact of war include World War I, World War II, the Vietnam War, the Rwandan Civil War, the Kosovo War, the Gulf War, and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War syndrome</span> Chronic disorder related to the Gulf War

Gulf War syndrome (GWS) also known as Gulf War Illness or Chronic Multi-symptom Illness, is a chronic and multi-symptomatic disorder affecting military veterans of both sides of the Gulf War (1990–1991). A wide range of acute and chronic symptoms have been linked to it, including fatigue, muscle pain, cognitive problems, insomnia, rashes and diarrhea. Approximately 250,000 of the 697,000 U.S. veterans who served in the Gulf War have enduring chronic multi-symptom illness, a condition with serious consequences. From 1995 to 2005, the health of combat veterans worsened in comparison with nondeployed veterans, with the onset of more new chronic diseases, functional impairment, repeated clinic visits and hospitalizations, chronic fatigue syndrome-like illness, post-traumatic stress disorder, and greater persistence of adverse health incidents.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burn pit</span> Waste disposal method

A burn pit is an area of a United States military base in which waste is disposed of by burning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gulf War Health Research Reform Act of 2014</span> US law

The Gulf War Health Research Reform Act of 2014 is a bill that would have altered the relationship between the Research Advisory Committee on Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (RAC) and the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), the federal agency under which the RAC is constituted. The bill would have made the RAC an independent organization within the VA, required that a majority of the RAC's members be appointed by Congress instead of the VA, and authorized the RAC to release its reports without needing prior approval from the VA Secretary. The RAC is responsible for investigating Gulf War Illness, a chronic multi-symptom disorder affecting returning military veterans of the 1990-91 Gulf War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental issues in Kuwait</span>

Located in the Middle East, Kuwait is a relatively small country that has been the center of many political and economic issues over the past few decades. Stemming from these tensions, Kuwait as well as other countries in the region, including Iran, Iraq, and Qatar face threats from environmental issues. A loss of agriculture due to climate change, pollution from the country's oil industry and Oil Fires of 1991 as well as damages to agriculture and biodiversity are just some of the common environmental issues. The Kuwaiti government has worked to mitigate and adapt to these issues through policy and the creation of agencies to research, educated and inform about environmental problems, their sources, and their effects.

References

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  11. 1 2 "Iraq's perfect storm – a climate and environmental crisis amid the scars of war". 2021-07-19.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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  13. 1 2 3 Hegazy, Ahmad K. (1997). "International Conference on the Long-Term Environmental Effects of the Gulf War: Held in Kuwait, during 18–20 November 1996". Environmental Conservation. 24 (1): 83–84. ISSN   0376-8929. JSTOR   44519245.
  14. 1 2 Sand, Peter H. (2011). "Catastrophic Environmental Damage and the Gulf War Reparation Awards: The Experience of the UN Compensation Commission" . Proceedings of the ASIL Annual Meeting. 105: 430–433. doi:10.5305/procannmeetasil.105.0430. ISSN   0272-5037. S2CID   156362940.
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  25. ↑ Shaki, Fatemeh; Zamani, Ehsan; Arjmand, Abdollah; Pourahmad, Jalal (December 2019). "A Review on Toxicodynamics of Depleted Uranium". Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 18 (Special Issue): 90–100. doi:10.22037/ijpr.2020.113045.14085. PMC   7393059 . PMID   32802091.
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  33. ↑ Payne, Cymie, and Peter Sand (eds), Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission: Environmental Liability (New York, 2011; online edn, Oxford Academic, 20 Apr. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199732203.001.0001, accessed 25 May 2023.
  34. ↑ https://international-review.icrc.org/sites/default/files/irrc-879-bothe-bruch-diamond-jensen.pdf
  35. ↑ "Press Release – United Nations Compensation Commission Pays Out US$270 Million" (PDF). United Nations Compensation Commission. 23 July 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
  36. ↑ https://uncc.ch/claims
  37. ↑ file:///Users/letiziaferhati/Downloads/_book_edcoll_9789047421917_Bej.9789004161566.i-1188_011-preview.pdf
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