Ethical eating

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Ethical eating or food ethics refers to the moral consequences [1] [2] of food choices, both those made by humans and animals. Common concerns are damage to the environment, [3] exploitive labor practices, food shortages for others, inhumane treatment of food animals, and the unintended effects of food policy. [4] Ethical eating is a type of ethical consumerism.

Contents

Concerns

Environmental

Cattle grazing in Texas Cattle grazing Ochiltree County, TX IMG 6050.JPG
Cattle grazing in Texas

The extent of environmental impacts depends on the methods of food production and types of food. The Union of Concerned Scientists advises that avoiding eating beef may potentially help the environment, [5] because of the large amounts of water needed to produce beef, the pollution from fecal, ammonia, carbon dioxide and methane waste associated with raising cows, the physical damage from grazing, and the destruction of wildlife habitat and rainforests to produce land for grazing. [5] Industrially produced meat, such as that from animals raised in concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), has "the greatest impact of any food product on the environment". [3] Livestock production takes up the majority of agricultural land use, which ultimately results in the increase of methane and nitrous oxide emissions. These two gases are known for being harmful and damaging to the environment. It also takes 7 kilograms of grain to produce 1 kilogram of beef, and the process to convert this requires even more energy and water usage. [6] This poses another ethical dilemma, which is choosing to feed the cattle over people in poverty. The latter is what brings in the most revenue, so that is where the attention and resources go towards.

Packaging of commercially produced foods is also an area of concern, [3] because of the environmental impact of both the production of the packaging and the disposal of the packaging.

Transportation of commercially produced goods can influence the environmental impact of the food products. [3]

Labor practices

Within the food system there are many low-paid occupations. Many farm workers are paid below-minimum wages [7] or work in substandard conditions, especially farm workers in developing countries and migrant workers in industrialized nations. Through the H-2A guest worker program, farms are able to hire for seasonal work or sometimes grant visas to workers. Due to the cost of this program, the administration of the program has been delayed. Year-round food and farm industries have become reliant on undocumented labor because they are unable to use the H-2 guest worker program. More recently, the topic of concern has been over labor shortages. The solution is investing into automation; new technologies have developed to the point where robots can now perform the tasks of an employee. Jobs within food processing [8] catering [9] and food retailing [10] are also often poorly paid and sometimes hazardous. The conditions in the fields require repetition of the same movements-with little to no breaks, and the workers are oftentimes exposed to toxic chemicals used on the crops. Factory farms are just as dangerous, as workers inhale gas from manure pits. The hydrogen sulfide in the manure has been known to cause bronchitis in the lungs, among other threatening health conditions. Although meat packing plant workers receive better pay, they risk their well-being on the job. The work is presented like an assembly line, and the employees each have to go through the same motions at a fast pace. Many employees have been sent to the hospital from incidents related to the knives and machinery they use. [11]

Distribution of wealth

Since the 1980s, policies promoting global free trade have increased the amount of food exported from poorer countries, which may adversely affect the food available for their own populations. [12] Campaign to reduce levels of food imports, however, may reduce the incomes of farmers in poorer countries, who rely on export sales. [13]

Food availability

Since the 1970s, the food system has become increasingly global and a small number of multi-national corporations now dominate trade in many food products. [14] One result is that the proportion of industrially processed foods in diets is increasing globally. [15]

Animal welfare

The welfare of animals who are farmed for food is considered a major source of concern, especially when they are farmed intensively, which can lead to negative welfare outcomes.[ citation needed ]

Specific food choices

Take a Bite Out Of Climate Change flashcards Climate food flashcards main nov19 v2 8up.pdf
Take a Bite Out Of Climate Change flashcards

Meat

Free-range pigs grazing at Polyface Farm, which promotes 'more sustainable' methods of animal husbandry Pigs at Polyface Farm.jpg
Free-range pigs grazing at Polyface Farm, which promotes 'more sustainable' methods of animal husbandry

Some ethicists argue that the keeping and killing of animals for human consumption is in itself unethical. [16] [17] Others point out that animal husbandry is "essential to sustainable farms, which don't rely on fossil fuels and chemicals," rather using animal waste as fertilizer and animal activity as weed and pest control and using animals to "convert vegetation that's inedible to humans, and growing on marginal, uncultivated land, into food." [1] [18]

The method in which food animals are raised and the type of food animal affect the ethics of eating that animal. Farm-raising is a method of raising food animals with lesser environmental impacts. [19]

Dairy and eggs

Dairy and egg production have ethical consequences, in particular in large-scale industrialized production. Chickens and milk-animals raised in industrial operations are often treated less fairly for commercial purposes.

Male chicks serve no use in the egg industry because they can't lay eggs or be used for meat production. Shortly after hatching they are separated and placed onto a conveyor belt to be killed. Sick and weak female chicks are also inspected and grouped together with the males to be terminated. The two ways of doing this involve either being thrown into a grinder or being gassed to death. The healthy females are transported to another facility where they grow until they are able to lay eggs. Once those chickens are unable to produce more eggs, they are then killed. This usually happens around 18 months, which is premature for their typical lifespan. [20] This is due to the unnatural conditions for the chickens, such as confinement in battery cages, surgical beak procedures, forced molting, and genetic mutations that lead to health complications. [21]

Small-scale production of eggs, such as by backyard chicken raisers and small diversified farms raising pastured birds or milk-animals, are less ethically fraught but still create some issues for ethicists.

Seafood

Industrial fishing has broad effects with ethical consequences. An example is nutrient and chemical pollution. The seafood industry has also been criticized due to issues with forced labor. Much of the seafood in the United States is imported from overseas, which means that certain regulations are out of jurisdiction and no longer apply. The standards aren't as high in other countries, which has led to problems with extortion. For example, Thailand has been known to participate in illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing. Ships and vessels depend on third parties for recruitment, meaning U.S. companies that get seafood from international locations are unable to keep track of supply chains. It's common for these third party agencies to hire migrants, who are easier to take advantage because of their vulnerability. Human trafficking has been another issue in some regions. [22]

Crops

Some foods produced in developing countries are exported in quantities that threaten the ability of local residents to affordably obtain their traditional foods. Western demand for quinoa, a traditional food in Bolivia Peru and Ecuador, has become so high that producers are eating significantly less of the grain, preferring to sell it for import instead and sparking concerns about malnutrition. [23]

Criticism

Some critics of the food ethics movement argue that parsing the various concerns is futile. [1]

Fairtrade International, the certifying body for Fair Trade products, has been accused of "misleading consumers about its ability to monitor production practices" [7] and giving Fairtrade certification to at least one coffee association despite the fact they were "illegally growing some 20 per cent of its coffee in protected national forest land." [7]

Related Research Articles

Meat Animal flesh eaten as food

Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted, farmed, and scavenged animals for meat since prehistoric times. The establishment of settlements in the Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale in slaughterhouses.

Vegetarianism Practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat

Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat. It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter.

Animal husbandry Management, selective breeding, and care of farm animals by humans

Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding, and the raising of livestock. Husbandry has a long history, starting with the Neolithic Revolution when animals were first domesticated, from around 13,000 BC onwards, predating farming of the first crops. By the time of early civilisations such as ancient Egypt, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were being raised on farms.

Tyson Foods American food company

Tyson Foods, Inc. is an American multinational corporation, based in Springdale, Arkansas, that operates in the food industry. The company is the world's second-largest processor and marketer of chicken, beef, and pork after JBS S.A. It annually exports the largest percentage of beef out of the United States. Together with its subsidiaries, it operates major food brands, including Jimmy Dean, Hillshire Farm, Ball Park, Wright Brand, Aidells, and State Fair. Tyson Foods ranked No. 79 in the 2020 Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by total revenue.

Meat packing industry Industrial production of food and by-prodcts from animals

The meat packing industry handles the slaughtering, processing, packaging, and distribution of meat from animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep and other livestock. Poultry is generally not included. This greater part of the entire meat industry is primarily focused on producing meat for human consumption, but it also yields a variety of by-products including hides, dried blood, protein meals such as meat & bone meal, and, through the process of rendering, fats.

White meat Meat which is pale before and after cooking

In culinary terms, white meat is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. A common example of white meat is the lighter-colored meat of poultry, coming from the breast, as contrasted with dark meat from the legs. Poultry white ("light") meat is made up of fast-twitch muscle fibres, while red ("dark") meat is made up of muscles with fibres that are slow-twitch. In traditional gastronomy, white meat also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals, and sometimes pork.

Ethics of eating meat Food ethics topic

Conversations regarding the ethics of eating meat are focused on whether or not it is moral to eat non-human animals. Ultimately, this is a debate that has been ongoing for millennia, and it remains one of the most prominent topics in food ethics.

Environmental vegetarianism Type of practice of vegetarianism

Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism when motivated by the desire to create a sustainable diet that avoids the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.

Chicken as food Type of meat

Chicken is the most common type of poultry in the world. Owing to the relative ease and low cost of raising chickens—in comparison to mammals such as cattle or hogs—chicken meat and chicken eggs have become prevalent in numerous cuisines.

Intensive animal farming Type of animal husbandry using high inputs and stocking densities to increase production

Intensive animal farming or industrial livestock production, also known by its opponents as factory farming and macro-farms, is a type of intensive agriculture, specifically an approach to animal husbandry designed to maximize production, while minimizing costs. To achieve this, agribusinesses keep livestock such as cattle, poultry, and fish at high stocking densities, at large scale, and using modern machinery, biotechnology, and global trade. The main products of this industry are meat, milk and eggs for human consumption. There are issues regarding whether intensive animal farming is sustainable given its costs in resources. Analysts also raise issues about its ethics.

Poultry farming Part of animal husbandry

Poultry farming is the form of animal husbandry which raises domesticated birds such as chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese to produce meat or eggs for food. Poultry – mostly chickens – are farmed in great numbers. More than 60 billion chickens are killed for consumption annually. Chickens raised for eggs are known as layers, while chickens raised for meat are called broilers.

Sustainable food system Balanced growth of nutritional substances and their distribution

A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and creates sustainable environmental, economic and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of sustainable agricultural practices, development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many or all 17 Sustainable Development Goals.

Low-carbon diet Diet to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices related to food consumption to reduce resulting greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe). Choosing a low carbon diet is one facet of developing sustainable diets which increase the long-term sustainability of humanity.

Environmental impact of meat production Animal flesh industrys harms to nature

The environmental impact of meat production varies because of the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. All agricultural practices have been found to have a variety of effects on the environment. Some of the environmental effects that have been associated with meat production are pollution, greenhouse gas emissions through fossil fuel usage, animal methane, effluent waste, and water and land consumption. Meat is obtained through a variety of methods, including organic farming, free range farming, intensive livestock production, subsistence agriculture, hunting, and fishing.

Keeping chickens is becoming increasingly popular in urban and suburban areas. The reasons for keeping chickens are as pets, for eggs, for meat, or for eating pests. Some people will sell the eggs for side income.

Ethical omnivorism, omnivorismor compassionate carnivorism, is a human diet involving the consumption of meat, eggs, dairy and produce that can be traced back to an organic farm. Ocean fish consumption is limited to sustainably farm-raised and/or ethically and wild caught, without contributing to illegal poaching.

Antibiotic use in livestock Use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock

Antibiotic use in livestock is the use of antibiotics for any purpose in the husbandry of livestock, which includes treatment when ill (therapeutic), treatment of a group of animals when at least one is diagnosed with clinical infection (metaphylaxis), and preventative treatment (prophylaxis). Antibiotics are an important tool to treat animal as well as human disease, safeguard animal health and welfare, and support food safety. However, used irresponsibly, this may lead to antibiotic resistance which may impact human, animal and environmental health.

Animal welfare and rights in Denmark is about the treatment of and laws concerning non-human animals in Denmark. Denmark has moderately strong protections for animals by international standards.

Farm Forward is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit whose mission is to promote conscientious eating, reduce farmed animal suffering, and advance sustainable agriculture. Farm Forward aims to eliminate the most harmful practices in intensive animal agriculture, increase the market share of humane and sustainable animal agriculture, and raise awareness about the cultural significance of animal agriculture.

Animal–industrial complex The systematic, industrialized and institutionalized exploitation of animals

The term animal–industrial complex (AIC) refers to the systematic and institutionalized exploitation of animals. It includes every economic activity involving animals, such as the food industry, animal testing, medicine, clothing, labor and transport, tourism and entertainment, selective breeding, and so forth. Proponents of the term claim that activities described by the term differ from individual acts of animal cruelty in that they constitute institutionalized animal exploitation.

References

  1. 1 2 3 "Put Your Ethics Where Your Mouth Is". New York Times. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  2. ↑ "ETHICAL EATING: FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE". Unitarian Universalist Association. 2014-10-30. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Newcomer, Laura (August 24, 2012). "33 Ways to Eat Environmentally Friendly". Time. Retrieved August 15, 2015.
  4. ↑ "2011 Statement of Conscience". Unitarian Universalist Association. 2011-08-24. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  5. 1 2 Boyan, Steve. "How Our Food Choices can Help Save the Environment". EarthSave. Retrieved August 15, 2015.
  6. ↑ "Food and climate change". David Suzuki Foundation. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
  7. 1 2 3 Weitzman, Hal (2006-09-08). "The bitter cost of 'fair trade' coffee". Financial Times. Retrieved August 15, 2015.
  8. ↑ Broadway, Michael J.; Stull, Donald D. (2010-04-26). "The Wages of Food Factories". Food and Foodways. 18 (1–2): 43–65. doi:10.1080/07409711003708413. ISSN   0740-9710. S2CID   146528219.
  9. ↑ Woolever, Laurie (2012-03-22). "High-End Food, Low-Wage Labor". Dissent. 59 (2): 26–32. doi:10.1353/dss.2012.0036. ISSN   1946-0910. PMID   22834046. S2CID   37118259.
  10. ↑ Lichtenstein, Nelson (2005-01-01). "Wal-Mart and the New World Order: A Template for Twenty-First Century Capitalism?". New Labor Forum. 14 (1): 20–30. doi:10.1080/1095760590901063. JSTOR   40342518.
  11. ↑ "Labor and Workers in the Food System". FoodPrint. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
  12. ↑ Brigham, Anne Margrethe (2011-11-01). "Agricultural Exports and Food Insecurity in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Qualititative Configurational Analysis". Development Policy Review. 29 (6): 729–748. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7679.2011.00554.x. ISSN   1467-7679. S2CID   154819179.
  13. ↑ Vidal, John; editor, environment (2007-10-25). "Air-freight food must pass fair trade test to retain organic label in future". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2017-02-21.{{cite news}}: |last2= has generic name (help)
  14. ↑ Lang, Tim (2003-09-01). "Food Industrialisation and Food Power: Implications for Food Governance". Development Policy Review. 21 (5–6): 555–568. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8659.2003.00223.x. hdl: 10535/6192 . ISSN   1467-7679. S2CID   63385285.
  15. ↑ Kearney, John (2010-09-27). "Food consumption trends and drivers". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 365 (1554): 2793–2807. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0149. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   2935122 . PMID   20713385.
  16. ↑ Zevnik, Neil (January 26, 2015). "The Humane Omnivore: An Oxymoron?". The Huffington Post. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  17. ↑ Pilgrim, Karyn (2013-05-01). "'Happy Cows,' 'Happy Beef': A Critique of the Rationales for Ethical Meat". Environmental Humanities. 3 (1): 111–127. doi: 10.1215/22011919-3611257 . ISSN   2201-1919.
  18. ↑ Niman, Nicolette Hahn (December 20, 2011). "Eating Animals". The Atlantic. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  19. ↑ Cox, Christopher (April 7, 2010). "It's Okay for Vegans to Eat Oysters". Slate. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
  20. ↑ "What the egg industry does to millions of day-old chicks will horrify you". www.animalsaustralia.org. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
  21. ↑ thehumaneleague.org https://thehumaneleague.org/article/factory-farmed-chickens . Retrieved 2021-12-02.{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  22. ↑ Thiry, Marissa; RDN (20 April 2021). "The Complexities of Ethical Eating | Food & Nutrition Magazine | Volume 10, Issue 2". foodandnutrition.org. Retrieved 2021-12-02.
  23. ↑ Collyns, Dan (January 14, 2013). "Quinoa brings riches to the Andes". The Guardian. Retrieved August 13, 2015.

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