Factors associated with being a victim of sexual violence

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Sexual Violence and Victimization
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Specific Offenses
Rape  · Statutory Rape  · Incest
Sexual Assault  · Domestic violence
Sexual Abuse  · Child sexual abuse
Sexual Harassment  · Pimping
Attempted rape  · Genital mutilation
Deviant sexual intercourse
Forms of Violence and Victimization
Types of rape  · War rape  · Sexual slavery
Spousal Rape  · Prison rape
Date rape  · Date rape drug
Human trafficking  · Prostitution
Victimization of Children
Child pornography  · Child trafficking
Prostitution of children
Commercial exploitation
Sociological Theories
Sociobiological theories of rape
Motivation for rape  · Victim blaming
Misogyny  · Misandry  · Aggression
Pedophilia  · Effects and aftermath
Rape Trauma Syndrome
Social and Cultural Aspects
Rape culture  · History of rape
raptio  · Comfort women  ·
Policy
Laws about rape  · Rape shield law
Laws regarding child sexual abuse
Rape crisis centre  · Honour killing
Anti-rape female condom  · Rape statistics
Portals: Law

One of the most common forms of sexual violence around the world is that which is perpetrated by an intimate partner, leading to the conclusion that one of the most important risk factors for people in terms of their vulnerability to sexual assault is being married or cohabiting with a partner. Other factors influencing the risk of sexual violence include:

Contents

Age

Young women are usually found to be more at risk of rape than older women. [2] [3] [4] According to data from justice systems and rape crisis centres in Chile, Malaysia, Mexico, Papua New Guinea, Peru, and the United States, between one-third and two-thirds of all victims of sexual assault are aged 15 years or less. [4] [5] Certain forms of sexual violence, for instance, are very closely associated with a young age, in particular violence taking place in schools and colleges, and trafficking in women for sexual exploitation.

Percentage of adolescents reporting forced sexual initiation, selected population-based surveys, 1993—1999
Country or areaStudy populationYearSample size [6] Sample age group (years)Percentage reporting first sexual intercourse as forced (%) femalePercentage reporting first sexual intercourse as forced (%) male
Cameroon Bamenda 199564612-2537.329.9
Caribbean Nine countries [7] 1997–19981569510-1847.6 [8] 31.9 [8]
Ghana Three urban towns199675012-2421.05.0
Mozambique Maputo 1999165913-1818.86.7
New Zealand Dunedin 1993–1994935Birth cohort [9] 7.00.2
Peru Lima 199561116-1740.011.0
South Africa Transkei 1994–1995197515-1828.46.4
United Republic of Tanzania Mwanza 199689212-1929.16.9
United States National 1995204215-249.1

Alcohol and drug consumption

Increased vulnerability to sexual violence also stems from the use of alcohol and other drugs. Consuming alcohol or drugs makes it more difficult for people to protect themselves by interpreting and effectively acting on warning signs. Drinking alcohol may also place a person in settings where his or her chances of encountering a potential offender are greater. [10]

Having previously been raped or sexually abused

There is some evidence linking experiences of sexual abuse in childhood or adolescence with patterns of victimization during adulthood. [10] [11] [12] [13] A national study of violence against women in the United States found that women who were raped before the age of 18 years were twice as likely to be raped as adults, compared with those who were not raped as children or adolescents (18.3% and 8.7%, respectively). [14]

The effects of early sexual abuse may also extend to other forms of victimization and problems in adulthood. For instance, a case control study in Australia on the long-term impact of abuse reported significant associations between child sexual abuse and experiencing rape, sexual and mental health problems, domestic violence and other problems in intimate relationships even after accounting for various family background characteristics. [13] Those who had experienced abuse involving intercourse had more negative outcomes than those suffering other types of coercion.

Educational level

Women are at increased risk of sexual violence, as they are of physical violence by an intimate partner, when they become more educated and thus more empowered. Women with no education were found in a national survey in South Africa to be much less likely to experience sexual violence than those with higher levels of education. [15] In Zimbabwe, women who were working were much more likely to report forced sex by a spouse than those who were not. [16] The likely explanation is that greater empowerment brings with it more resistance from women to patriarchal norms, [17] so that men may resort to violence in an attempt to regain control. The relationship between empowerment and physical violence is an n-shape with greater empowerment conferring greater risk up to a certain level, beyond which it starts to become protective. [10] [18] It is not known, though, whether this is also the case for sexual violence.

Poverty

Poor women and girls may be more at risk of rape in the course of their daily tasks than those who are better off, for example when they walk home on their own from work late at night, or work in the fields or collect firewood alone. Children of poor women may have less parental supervision when not in school, since their mothers may be at work and unable to afford child care. The children themselves may, in fact, be working and thus vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Poverty forces many women and girls into occupations that carry a relatively high risk of sexual violence, [19] particularly sex work. [20] It also creates enormous pressures for them to find or maintain jobs, to pursue trading activities and, if studying, to obtain good grades, all of which render them vulnerable to sexual coercion from those who can promise these things. [21] Poorer women are also more at risk of intimate partner violence, of which sexual violence is often a manifestation. [22] [23]

LGBTQIA+

Members of LGBTQIA+ communities have historically been targets of sexual violence. In many societies such as in New York, queer activism gained visibility during the 1960s and beyond in political spaces. [24] In areas where queer visibility was more prominent, there was also more heavy policing. Due to the incarceration and criminalization of queer people brought into detention centers, a space was created where guards could sexually abuse queer individuals. Additionally, members of queer and transgender communities have experienced disproportionate rates of poverty due to a lack of job access and discrimination. [25]  Because of the lack of economic opportunity, individuals resort to jobs that involve an increased risk of sexual violence such as sex work. [26] Sexual violence has commonly impacted members of queer communities where drug addiction and poverty may also be present due to the systemic association that correlates unemployment and low education levels with an increase in drug use. [27]

See also

Related Research Articles

Sexual assault is an act in which one intentionally sexually touches another person without that person's consent, or coerces or physically forces a person to engage in a sexual act against their will. It is a form of sexual violence that includes child sexual abuse, groping, rape, drug facilitated sexual assault, and the torture of the person in a sexual manner.

Psychological abuse, often called emotional abuse, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another person to a behavior that may result in psychological trauma, including anxiety, chronic depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder.

Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act by violence or coercion, act to traffic a person, regardless of the relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed acts and occurs without the consent of the victim. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Violence against women</span> Violent acts committed primarily against women and girls

Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), are violent acts primarily or exclusively committed by men or boys against women or girls. Such violence is often considered a form of hate crime, committed against women or girls specifically because they are female, and can take many forms.

Gender is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Rape by gender classifies types of rape by the sex and/or gender of both the rapist and the victim. This scope includes both rape and sexual assault more generally. Most research indicates that rape affects women disproportionately, with the majority of people convicted being men; however, since the broadening of the definition of rape in 2012 by the FBI, more attention is being given to male rape, including females raping males.

Rape is a traumatic experience that affects the victim in a physical, psychological, and sociological way. Even though the effects and aftermath of rape differ among victims, individuals tend to suffer from similar issues found within these three categories. Long-term reactions may involve the development of coping mechanisms that will either benefit the victim, such as social support, or inhibit their recovery. Seeking support and professional resources may assist the victim in numerous ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rape</span> Type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse without consent

Rape is a type of sexual assault involving sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual penetration carried out against a person without their consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority, or against a person who is incapable of giving valid consent, such as one who is unconscious, incapacitated, has an intellectual disability, or is below the legal age of consent. The term rape is sometimes used interchangeably with the term sexual assault.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is domestic violence by a current or former spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner. IPV can take a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines IPV as "any behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors." IPV is sometimes referred to simply as battery, or as spouse or partner abuse.

Intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) deals with sexual violence within the context of domestic violence. Intimate partner sexual violence is defined by any unwanted sexual contact or activity by an intimate partner in order to control an individual through fear, threats, or violence. Women are the primary victims of this type of violence.

Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent. Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice. Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estimates of sexual violence</span>

Surveys of victims of crime have been undertaken in many cities and countries, using a common methodology to aid comparability, and have generally included questions on sexual violence. The United Nations has conducted extensive surveys to determine the level of sexual violence in different societies. According to these studies, the percentage of women reporting having been a victim of sexual assault ranges from less than 2% in places such as La Paz, Bolivia (1.4%), Gaborone, Botswana (0.8%), Beijing, China (1.6%), and Manila, Philippines (0.3%), to 5% or more in Istanbul, Turkey (6.0%), Buenos Aires, Argentina (5.8%), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (8.0%), and Bogota, Colombia (5.0%).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Initiatives to prevent sexual violence</span> Responses aimed at combating sexual violence

As sexual violence affects all parts of society, the responses that arise to combat it are comprehensive, taking place on the individual, administrative, legal, and social levels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence</span> Abuse of members of the same household

Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation. Domestic violence is often used as a synonym for intimate partner violence, which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, financial abuse, or sexual abuse. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes the use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning, bride burning, honor killing, and dowry death, which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control.

Pregnancy when coupled with domestic violence is a form of intimate partner violence (IPV) where health risks may be amplified. Abuse during pregnancy, whether physical, verbal or emotional, produces many adverse physical and psychological effects for both the mother and fetus. Domestic violence during pregnancy is categorized as abusive behavior towards a pregnant woman, where the pattern of abuse can often change in terms of severity and frequency of violence. Abuse may be a long-standing problem in a relationship that continues after a woman becomes pregnant or it may commence in pregnancy. Although female-to-male partner violence occurs in these settings, the overwhelming form of domestic violence is perpetrated by men against women. Pregnancy provides a unique opportunity for healthcare workers to screen women for domestic violence though a recent review found that the best way in which to do this is unclear. Reducing domestic violence in pregnancy should improve outcomes for mothers and babies though more good quality studies are needed to work out effective ways of screening pregnant women.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual violence in Papua New Guinea</span>

Papua New Guinea (PNG) is often labelled as potentially the worst place in the world for gender-based violence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in same-sex relationships</span>

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships or intragender violence is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual assault of LGBT persons</span>

Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.

Violence against women in the United States is the use of domestic abuse, murder, sex-trafficking, rape and assault against women in the United States. It has been recognized as a public health concern. Culture in the United States has led towards the trivialization of violence towards women, with media in the United States possibly contributing to making women-directed violence appear unimportant to the public.

Secondary victimisation refers to further victim-blaming from criminal justice authorities following a report of an original victimisation.

References

  1. ↑ UN Women. "Facts and figures: Ending violence against women". UNWomen.org. UN Women. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  2. ↑ Acierno R et al. Risk factors for rape, physical assault, and post-traumatic stress disorder in women: examination of differential multivariate relationships. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 1999, 13:541–563.
  3. ↑ Greenfeld LA. Sex offenses and offenders: an analysis of data on rape and sexual assault. Washington, DC, United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics (NCJ 163392).
  4. 1 2 Heise L, Pitanguy J, Germain A. Violence against women: the hidden health burden. Washington, DC, World Bank, 1994 (Discussion Paper No. 255).
  5. ↑ Greenfeld LA. Sex offenses and offenders: an analysis of data on rape and sexual assault . Washington, DC, United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics (NCJ 163392).
  6. ↑ Total number of adolescents in the study. Rates are based on those who have had sexual intercourse.
  7. ↑ Antigua, Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica and Saint Lucia.
  8. 1 2 Percentage of adolescents responding that their first intercourse was forced or somewhat forced.
  9. ↑ Longitudinal study of a cohort born in 1972--1973. Subjects were questioned at 18 years of age and again at 21 years of age about their current and previous sexual behaviour.
  10. 1 2 3 Crowell NA, Burgess AW, eds. Understanding violence against women. Washington, DC, National Academy Press, 1996.
  11. ↑ Acierno R et al. Risk factors for rape, physical assault, and post-traumatic stress disorder in women: examination of differential multivariate relationships. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 1999, 13:541–563.
  12. ↑ Tjaden P, Thoennes N. Full report of the prevalence, incidence and consequences of violence against women: findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, United States Department of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000 (NCJ 183781).
  13. 1 2 Fleming J et al. The long-term impact of childhood sexual abuse in Australian women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 1999, 23:145–159.
  14. ↑ Tjaden P, Thoennes N. Full report of the prevalence, incidence and consequences of violence against women: findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey. Washington, DC, National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, United States Department of Justice and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000 (NCJ 183781).
  15. ↑ Jewkes R, Abrahams N. The epidemiology of rape and sexual coercion in South Africa: an overview. Social Science and Medicine (in press).
  16. ↑ Watts C et al. Withholding sex and forced sex: dimensions of violence against Zimbabwean women. Reproductive Health Matters, 1998, 6:57–65.
  17. ↑ Jewkes R, Penn-Kekana L, Levin J. Risk factors for domestic violence: findings from a South African cross-sectional study. Social Science and Medicine (in press).
  18. ↑ Jewkes R. Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention. Lancet, 2002, 359:1423–1429.
  19. ↑ Omorodion FI, Olusanya O. The social context of reported rape in Benin City, Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 1998, 2:37–43.
  20. ↑ Faune MA. Centroamerica: los costos de la guerra y la paz. [Central America: the costs of war and of peace.] Perspectivas, 1997, 8:14–15.
  21. ↑ Omaar R, de Waal A. Crimes without punishment: sexual harassment and violence against female students in schools and universities in Africa. African Rights, July 1994 (Discussion Paper No. 4).
  22. ↑ Martin SL et al. Sexual behaviour and reproductive health outcomes: associations with wife abuse in India. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1999, 282:1967–1972.
  23. ↑ International Clinical Epidemiologists Network. Domestic violence in India: a summary report of a multi-site household survey. Washington, DC, International Center for Research on Women, 2000.
  24. ↑ Gould, Deborah (2009). Moving Politics: Emotion and Act Up's Fight against AIDS. University of Chicago Press. pp. 180–212. ISBN   978-0226305301.
  25. ↑ Spade, Dean (2022). Trans Law and Politics on a Neoliberal Landscape (1st ed.). pp. 1–30. ISBN   9781003206255.
  26. ↑ Pinkham, Sophie; Malinowska-Sempruch, Kasia (2008). "Women, Harm Reduction and HIV". Reproductive Health Matters. 16 (31): 168–181. ISSN   0968-8080.
  27. ↑ MD, Peter Grinspoon (28 September 2021). "Poverty, homelessness, and social stigma make addiction more deadly". Harvard Health. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
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