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Barcelona is a coastal city located in Catalonia, Spain and it is a major contributor to food waste. Every year, tons of perfectly good food is discarded or thrown away by consumers and businesses, often ending up in landfills and contributing to environmental problems such as greenhouse gas emissions and pollution.
Food loss and food waste both refer to food that is discarded or not consumed, but they have different meanings and implications.
Food loss refers to the decrease in quantity or quality of food that occurs along the food supply chain from production to retail. This can be due to a variety of factors such as poor harvesting techniques, inadequate storage facilities, transportation problems, and market inefficiencies. Food loss typically occurs in developing countries where the infrastructure for food storage, transportation, and processing is inadequate. [1]
Food waste, on the other hand, refers to food that is discarded or thrown away by consumers, retailers, and food service providers. This can occur due to a variety of reasons such as overproduction, expiration dates, and cosmetic imperfections. Food waste typically occurs in developed countries where there is an abundance of food and a culture of over-consumption. [2]
While both food loss and food waste have negative environmental and economic impacts, food waste is generally considered to be easily preventable and less justifiable. This is because food waste occurs mainly due to consumer behavior and decisions, whereas food loss is often caused by factors outside of the consumer's control. [3]
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food waste as food appropriate for human consumption being discarded. The FAO reported that around one-third of all food produced for human consumption (1.3 billion tons) is lost and wasted across the entire supply chain every year, with an estimated value of US$936 billion. [4] The amount of FLW varies between countries and is influenced by factors such as level of income, urbanization, and economic growth. In less-developed countries, FLW occurs mainly in the post-harvest and processing stage, while in developed countries, a significant portion occurs in the consumption stage, driven mostly by consumer behavior, values, and attitudes. FLW has serious environmental, economic, poverty, and natural resource impacts, including contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and decreased availability of food for human consumption. FLW reduction initiatives could improve food prices, efficiency in the supply chain, and access to nutritious foods for vulnerable households. [5]
National governments and international entities are introducing policies to reduce food waste. The United Nations has set a target to cut food waste in half by 2030, and the European Commission has committed to achieving this goal as part of its Circular Economy Action Plan. To support this, the EU Platform on Food Losses and Food Waste was established to help prevent food waste and share best practices. In order to reduce food waste, it's important to accurately account for it throughout the food supply chain. However, there is currently no standardized way to do this. The Joint Research Centre of the European Commission organized a workshop to discuss how to harmonize and improve food waste accounting methodologies. Experts identified several research gaps, such as the need for clear and consistent definitions and terminology, improved data quality, and identifying drivers of food waste. These improvements will help policymakers better design policies to reduce food waste. [6]
In Catalonia, people consume 3.74 million tonnes of solid food every year, which amounts to 499 kg per person. However, 1.18 million tonnes of food are discarded as waste. 920,577 tonnes include unavoidable waste such as vegetable peels, coffee grounds, and fish bones. The remaining 262,471 tonnes is classified as food wastage. This is equivalent to 7% of the total solid food products acquired by homes, restaurants, and shops in Catalonia, which is 34.9 kg per person per year. [7] This amount of food wastage is enough to feed over 500,000 people for a year. Home kitchens are responsible for the majority of food wastage, around 58% (151,800 tonnes), followed by supermarkets and grocery stores (16%), bars and restaurants (12%), retail food sector (9%), institutional catering and restaurant services (4%), and municipal markets (1%). [8]
2010 estimates show that Spain had about 135 kg of food waste per capita, the 17th highest in Europe. [9] However, these numbers have changed significantly in the last decade. According to a 2020 report by the European Union, the average amount of food waste generated per capita in Europe is around 131 kg per year. [10] Comparatively, Spain was estimated to have 77 kg of food waste per capita, the 18th highest in Europe. [11] However, there is significant variation within Spain, with some regions and cities generating more food waste than others. A 2011 study by the Autonomous University of Barcelona, found that Catalonia is responsible 14.8% of Spain's total food waste. [12]
The main causes of this food waste in Barcelona are overproduction and overconsumption. Restaurants often overproduce food, leading to a surplus of food that goes to waste. For example, set menus at restaurants do not offer choices for the sizes of portions which means consumers may occasionally acquire too much food which goes to waste. In market settings, the majority of food waste is a result of poor management and storage processes. Factors such as inadequate employee training, difficulties in sales forecasting, and duration of fresh products all contribute to food waste in Barcelona's markets. [13]
Additionally, consumers often buy more food than they need, and end up throwing away food that goes bad before they have a chance to eat it. Researchers have found that there are a wide range of factors contributing to consumers' behavior regarding food waste in Barcelona including: lack of awareness of the volume of food waste, percentage of income invested in food, family structure, and expiration date norms. [14]
In a way to prevent food waste, a goal of waste prevention procedure has to be a priority. Waste prevention relates to actions taken before the product becomes wasted, which reduces the quantity of waste. The waste prevention hierarchy is the order to reduce the amount of waste being contributed. The preventitive measures in order are: Prevention; Reduction at Source; Re-use; Recycle; Energy recovery; Disposal. Inside the recycle section, there is a hierarchy of subsections into source reduction, feed hungry people, feed animals, industrial uses, composting and finally landfill incineration. [15]
Food waste has a significant environmental impact, as it contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, and other environmental problems. When food is wasted, the resources used to produce, transport, and process it, such as land, water, and energy, are also wasted. This leads to unnecessary environmental impacts, such as:
Reducing food waste can help to mitigate these environmental impacts, as it can conserve resources, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote sustainable food consumption. This can be achieved through various strategies, such as improving food storage and handling practices, promoting sustainable agriculture and production methods, and changing consumer behavior through education and awareness-raising campaigns. [20]
The Spanish government has implemented several initiatives to tackle food waste, such as the establishment of the Circular Economy Spanish Strategy which aims to reduce food waste by 50% by 2030. [21] Additionally, the government has passed recent laws such as a law created in June 2022 to promote taking home leftovers and discounting soon-to-expire food stock. [22] Since 2015, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDs) has been working on goal 12. The goal is to live in a way that helps the environment and doesn't harm it. Including using natural resources wisely and not wasting them. Universities can play an important role in promoting this by teaching students and encouraging healthy habits that support sustainability. This can help create a generation of professionals who are committed to protecting the environment. [23]
In addition to combat food waste in Barcelona, several initiatives have been put in place on a city level. For example, the city's Waste Prevention Plan for Barcelona 2012-2020 strived to reduce the amount of food waste generated by restaurants and supermarkets, promote the donation of surplus food to food banks, and encourage consumers to buy only what they need. Additionally, the city supported initiatives to reduce food waste such as home composting and the prevention of food waste in education center dining rooms. [24]
There are also several organizations in Barcelona that work to reduce food waste. One example is Rezero, a non-profit organization that aims to create a zero waste society by promoting sustainable consumption and production practices. In addition, some restaurants in Barcelona have taken steps to reduce food waste by offering smaller portion sizes, using leftover ingredients creatively, and composting food waste.
One solution at a smaller scale that has been used in many cities across the globe is the app, Too Good to Go. Too Good To Go is a mobile application that connects consumers with local food businesses that have surplus food at the end of the day, such as restaurants and grocery stores, and offers the surplus food at a discounted price to reduce food waste. The app enables consumers to browse and purchase surplus food from local businesses, reducing food waste while also saving money. The app is available in several countries and has been successful in reducing food waste while also increasing revenue for local businesses. Overall this app aims to benefit both the consumers and businesses, and it has a positive impact on reducing the amount of food waste. [25]
The carbon footprint (or greenhouse gas footprint) serves as an indicator to compare the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted from an activity, product, company or country. Carbon footprints are usually reported in tons of emissions (CO2-equivalent) per unit of comparison; such as per year, person, kg protein, km travelled and alike. For a product, its carbon footprint includes the emissions for the entire life cycle from the production along the supply chain to its final consumption and disposal. Similarly for an organization, its carbon footprint includes the direct as well as the indirect emissions caused by the organization (called Scope 1, 2 and 3 in the Greenhouse Gas Protocol that is used for carbon accounting of organizations). Several methodologies and online tools exist to calculate the carbon footprint, depending on whether the focus is on a country, organization, product or individual person. For example, the carbon footprint of a product could help consumers decide which product to buy if they want to be climate aware. In the context of climate change mitigation activities, the carbon footprint can help distinguish those economic activities with a high footprint from those with a low footprint. In other words, the carbon footprint concept allows everyone to make comparisons between the climate-relevant impacts of individuals, products, companies, countries. In doing so, it helps to devise strategies and priorities for reducing the carbon footprint.
Food miles is the distance food is transported from the time of its making until it reaches the consumer. Food miles are one factor used when testing the environmental impact of food, such as the carbon footprint of the food.
Environmental vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism that is motivated by the desire to create a sustainable diet, which avoids the negative environmental impact of meat production. Livestock as a whole is estimated to be responsible for around 15% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, significant reduction in meat consumption has been advocated by, among others, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in their 2019 special report and as part of the 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity.
Waste minimisation is a set of processes and practices intended to reduce the amount of waste produced. By reducing or eliminating the generation of harmful and persistent wastes, waste minimisation supports efforts to promote a more sustainable society. Waste minimisation involves redesigning products and processes and/or changing societal patterns of consumption and production.
Biodegradable waste includes any organic matter in waste which can be broken down into carbon dioxide, water, methane, compost, humus, and simple organic molecules by micro-organisms and other living things by composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes. It mainly includes kitchen waste, ash, soil, dung and other plant matter. In waste management, it also includes some inorganic materials which can be decomposed by bacteria. Such materials include gypsum and its products such as plasterboard and other simple sulfates which can be decomposed by sulfate reducing bacteria to yield hydrogen sulfide in anaerobic land-fill conditions.
Food loss and waste is food that is not eaten. The causes of food waste or loss are numerous and occur throughout the food system, during production, processing, distribution, retail and food service sales, and consumption. Overall, about one-third of the world's food is thrown away. A 2021 meta-analysis that did not include food lost during production, by the United Nations Environment Programme found that food waste was a challenge in all countries at all levels of economic development. The analysis estimated that global food waste was 931 million tonnes of food waste across three sectors: 61 percent from households, 26 percent from food service and 13 percent from retail.
Anthropogenic metabolism, also referred to as metabolism of the anthroposphere, is a term used in industrial ecology, material flow analysis, and waste management to describe the material and energy turnover of human society. It emerges from the application of systems thinking to the industrial and other man-made activities and it is a central concept of sustainable development. In modern societies, the bulk of anthropogenic (man-made) material flows is related to one of the following activities: sanitation, transportation, habitation, and communication, which were "of little metabolic significance in prehistoric times". Global man-made stocks of steel in buildings, infrastructure, and vehicles, for example, amount to about 25 Gigatonnes, a figure that is surpassed only by construction materials such as concrete. Sustainable development is closely linked to the design of a sustainable anthropogenic metabolism, which will entail substantial changes in the energy and material turnover of the different human activities. Anthropogenic metabolism can be seen as synonymous to social or socioeconomic metabolism. It comprises both industrial metabolism and urban metabolism.
Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect, contributing to climate change. Carbon dioxide, from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is one of the most important factors in causing climate change. The largest emitters are China followed by the US, although the United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Human-caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before. Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2017 were 425±20 GtC from fossil fuels and industry, and 180±60 GtC from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2017, coal 32%, oil 25%, and gas 10%.
A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and creates sustainable environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of sustainable agricultural practices, development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets, and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many or all 17 Sustainable Development Goals.
A low-carbon diet is a diet with low greenhouse gas emissions. Choosing a low carbon diet is one facet of developing sustainable diets which increase the long-term sustainability of humanity.
This is a glossary of environmental science.
Sustainable diets are "dietary patterns that promote all dimensions of individuals’ health and wellbeing; have low environmental pressure and impact; are accessible, affordable, safe and equitable; and are culturally acceptable". These diets are nutritious, eco-friendly, economically sustainable, and accessible to people of various socioeconomic backgrounds. Sustainable diets attempt to address nutrient deficiencies and excesses, while accounting for ecological phenomena such as climate change, loss of biodiversity and land degradation. These diets are comparable to the climatarian diet, with the added domains of economic sustainability and accessiblity.
Sustainable consumption is the use of products and services in ways that minimizes impacts on the environment. Sustainable consumption is done in a way that needs are met for present humans but also for future generations. Sustainable consumption is often paralleled with sustainable production; consumption refers to use and disposal not just by individuals and households, but also by governments, businesses, and other organizations. Sustainable consumption is closely related to sustainable production and sustainable lifestyles. "A sustainable lifestyle minimizes ecological impacts while enabling a flourishing life for individuals, households, communities, and beyond. It is the product of individual and collective decisions about aspirations and about satisfying needs and adopting practices, which are in turn conditioned, facilitated, and constrained by societal norms, political institutions, public policies, infrastructures, markets, and culture."
The term food system describes the interconnected systems and processes that influence nutrition, food, health, community development, and agriculture. A food system includes all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, distribution, and disposal of food and food-related items. It also includes the inputs needed and outputs generated at each of these steps. Food systems fall within agri-food systems, which encompass the entire range of actors and their interlinked value-adding activities in the primary production of food and non-food agricultural products, as well as in food storage, aggregation, post-harvest handling, transportation, processing, distribution, marketing, disposal, and consumption. A food system operates within and is influenced by social, political, economic, technological and environmental contexts. It also requires human resources that provide labor, research and education. Food systems are either conventional or alternative according to their model of food lifespan from origin to plate. Food systems are dependent on a multitude of ecosystem services. For example, natural pest regulations, microorganisms providing nitrogen-fixation, and pollinators.
The environmental effects of paper are significant, which has led to changes in industry and behaviour at both business and personal levels. With the use of modern technology such as the printing press and the highly mechanized harvesting of wood, disposable paper became a relatively cheap commodity, which led to a high level of consumption and waste. The rise in global environmental issues such as air and water pollution, climate change, overflowing landfills and clearcutting have all lead to increased government regulations. There is now a trend towards sustainability in the pulp and paper industry as it moves to reduce clear cutting, water use, greenhouse gas emissions, fossil fuel consumption and clean up its influence on local water supplies and air pollution.
The environmental impact of agriculture is the effect that different farming practices have on the ecosystems around them, and how those effects can be traced back to those practices. The environmental impact of agriculture varies widely based on practices employed by farmers and by the scale of practice. Farming communities that try to reduce environmental impacts through modifying their practices will adopt sustainable agriculture practices. The negative impact of agriculture is an old issue that remains a concern even as experts design innovative means to reduce destruction and enhance eco-efficiency. Though some pastoralism is environmentally positive, modern animal agriculture practices tend to be more environmentally destructive than agricultural practices focused on fruits, vegetables and other biomass. The emissions of ammonia from cattle waste continue to raise concerns over environmental pollution.
The environmental impact of the energy industry is significant, as energy and natural resource consumption are closely related. Producing, transporting, or consuming energy all have an environmental impact. Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia. Initially it was with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years. In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources. Scientific consensus on some of the main human activities that contribute to global warming are considered to be increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, causing a warming effect, global changes to land surface, such as deforestation, for a warming effect, increasing concentrations of aerosols, mainly for a cooling effect.
Micro-sustainability is the portion of sustainability centered around small scale environmental measures that ultimately affect the environment through a larger cumulative impact. Micro-sustainability centers on individual efforts, behavior modification, education and creating attitudinal changes, which result in an environmentally conscious individual. Micro-sustainability encourages sustainable changes through "change agents"—individuals who foster positive environmental action locally and inside their sphere of influence. Examples of micro-sustainability include recycling, power saving by turning off unused lights, programming thermostats for efficient use of energy, reducing water usage, changing commuting habits to use less fossil fuels or modifying buying habits to reduce consumption and waste. The emphasis of micro-sustainability is on an individual's actions, rather than organizational or institutional practices at the systemic level. These small local level actions have immediate community benefits if undertaken on a widespread scale and if imitated, they can have a cumulative broad impact.
Individual action on climate change can include personal choices in many areas, such as diet, travel, household energy use, consumption of goods and services, and family size. Individuals can also engage in local and political advocacy around issues of climate change. People who wish to reduce their carbon footprint, can take "high-impact" actions, such as avoiding frequent flying and petrol fuelled cars, eating mainly a plant-based diet, having fewer children, using clothes and electrical products for longer, and electrifying homes. Avoiding meat and dairy foods has been called "the single biggest way" an individual can reduce their environmental impact. Excessive consumption is more to blame for climate change than population increase. High consumption lifestyles have a greater environmental impact, with the richest 10% of people emitting about half the total lifestyle emissions.
The amount of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture is significant: The agriculture, forestry and land use sector contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture contributes towards climate change through direct greenhouse gas emissions and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. Emissions of nitrous oxide, methane make up over half of total greenhouse gas emission from agriculture. Animal husbandry is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions.
