Gender disparities in Kenyan education

Last updated

Gender disparities in Kenyan education are the differences in educational outcomes observed between different genders in Kenya. Specifically, gender disparities imply that one sex is disadvantaged over the other in experiences and outcomes. Education disparities can be seen in different enrollment rates, dropout rates, and survival rates among the sexes. Often these phenomena happen together. This can also include a difference in the quality of education received. In Kenya, gender disparities in education may be created or perpetuated by policy, ethnicity, region, religion, and age.

Contents

Overall performances and transition rates

Enrollment in education has greatly increased in Kenya over the years. During the last two decades of colonial rule, it is estimated that girls took up just 25% of all children enrolled in the workforce. In 1953, only one woman, or 6% of all students, achieved post-secondary education. [1] Since then, according to a UNICEF study, enrollment has increased and the gender gap has reduced in size. UNICEF estimates as of 2012, 83.2% of youth (ages 15–24), are literate. [2] In 1973, the girls made up only 43% of total primary school enrollment. In the educationally advanced districts, this proportion was close to 50%, while in the districts in the pastoral areas and coastal province, it was below 32%. [3] [4]

UNICEF states females actually show slightly higher enrollment than males in primary school, 84.5% enrollment compared to 83.5% for boys. In addition, overall survival rate to the last year of primary school is a high 96.1%. [2] However, the relationship between male and female enrollment switches and widens in secondary education. In secondary school, 51.6% of enrolled students are male and 48.4% are female. UNICEF reports that the greatest gender disparity exists among the poorest quintile group of Kenya, with attendance rates being 33.1% and 25% for males and females respectively. [5] What is very clear is that there is a distinct difference in rates of enrollment for females in certain districts, with the highest district, Kirinyaga enrolling 51.8% of its girls in school and the lowest district, Wajir, only enrolling 13.9% of its girls. [1]

Regional and ethnic disparities

The demographics of Kenya includes over 43 ethnic tribes. [6] In recent years,[ when? ] violent ethnic conflict has come to the attention of the media, especially because of the 2007-08 Kenyan crisis, however, it is believed by many that this violence represents a larger problem in Kenya: uneven and combined development that leads to uneven resources and outcomes among its ethnic groups. Kenyan regions were determined by the British Empire during colonization to reflect ethnic differences, and enrollment in different levels of education varies by region as a result. [7] Regional differentiation has been linked to uneven capitalist development that occurred in Kenya in the first half of the twentieth century. [3] Some regions were chosen as central regions, and periphery regions were given different, lesser functional roles, resulting in different outcomes and accentuating ethnic differences. [3] This regional differentiation, meant to create a class of capitalist farmers to replace the peasants during colonization, created disparities between the rural workers and the poorest marginal group. [3]

History of ethnic and regional disparities

Before 1900, Christian Missionaries set up schools mostly along the east coast of Kenya, before swiftly moving inland. The main missionary settlements were in the present Central Province (Kenya), Eastern Province (Kenya), Western Province (Kenya), and Nyanza Province, particularly in the Central and Western Province; there were very few settlements in the Rift Valley Province and parts of Coast Province. [3] This lowered concentration of schools in these districts continued over the decades.

Provinces of Kenya 1. Central 2. Coast 3. Eastern 4. Nairobi 5. North Eastern 6. Nyanza 7. Rift Valley 8. Western Kenya Provinces numbered.svg
Provinces of Kenya
1. Central
2. Coast
3. Eastern
4. Nairobi 		5. North Eastern
6. Nyanza
7. Rift Valley
8. Western

The tribes that were penetrated most deeply by the initial missionary spring in the 1920s were the Luo, Luhya, Kikuyu, Embu, Meru, and Kamba. [3]

The Luo and Kikuyu were the first tribes to embrace Western systems, [3] including education and are also the groups that have advanced most greatly socio-economically along the tribes. Other tribes like the Kalenjin, who lived in the Rift valley, previously mentioned to have had less missionary presence, were slower to jump onto the Western education bandwagon because of their regional disadvantage. The spreading of education in Kenya was a political one as all tribes initially resisted the presence of missionary force until they realized the socio-economic benefits. [3] Education was a way to escape forced labor and unfair market conditions under colonial presence. As Kinyanjui goes on to say, over time the different tribes decided to take more power over their educational systems. The first to do so were the Kikuyu. It seems that as missionary presence intensified in an area, more initial protest and subsequent acceptance of Western education and tribal advancement happened. [3] This phenomenon varied in strength in different regions. In regions that took longer to assimilate into Western countries and benefit from advanced schooling systems, the girls experienced greater education inequality. Kikuyu, Luo and other groups have benefited from this early educational influence experience greater academic achievement and female enrollment in the long term than in other tribes. [3]

Perpetuation of ethnic and regional difference

Achievements in gender disparities in Kenya

Because of dwindling land reserves, higher stress has been put on formal education. [8] The Kenyan government has also poured vast amounts of resources into educating the population, including introducing universal primary schooling. [9] Education has increasingly become more valuable since more Kenyans have been able to get more middle and higher-income jobs due to education. [8] In addition, illegitimate post-colonial elections have perpetuated the socioeconomic advancement of certain regions like the Central region, over others by elected officials. [3]

Achievement in codified law

In 1972, the Law of Succession was enacted that requires equal access to property at death when the owner dies without a will. [8]

Challenges to gender equality

Ethnic, tribal, and family barriers

All four major tribes in Kenya (Kikuyu, Luo, Luyia, and Kamba) are polygynous, patrilineal, and usually patrilocal. [8] For example, traditionally (before the 1972 Law of Succession) only male relatives could inherit land from their fathers in the Kikuyu, Luo, and Luyia tribes, with the exception of Kamba women being able to inherit from their husbands. However, often women may not be able to assert their rights to inherit due to low literacy among women, expenses in court, and corruption. [8] According to Cubbins, although females are increasingly more involved in the productive labor of their households, in rural areas, they are mostly in charge of agriculture production that goes back into the households, whereas fathers mainly have control over the cash crops [8] which have the economic power to support their children in school. Because women are more likely to invest their resources into their children's education, the traditional practice of males controlling cash crops poses a significant concern for gender disparities in Kenya. [8]

One of the reasons the Kikuyus, the tribe to assimilate into Western education first, refused to enter into this formal education was because missionaries often put restrictions on groups who practiced female genital mutilation. This barrier kept Kenyans of many tribes from being able to access formal education from the missionaries. [9]

In some tribes, girls who receive formal education may be seen as breaking traditional tribal norms and rejecting the tribal lifestyle. [10] As Lesorogol observed in the Samburu people, educated women may differentiate themselves by enforcing conceptual differences along the dimensions of knowledge/capabilities and morality/sexuality. [10] Many times when educated women show knowledge of Swahili or English, the nation's national languages, or work outside the home, they are seen as showing off their superiority or not valuing traditional roles for women. [10] Educated women may be viewed by their tribes, family members and greater society as "worldly", a definition that often comes with associated connotations like disrespectful, arrogant, or even promiscuous. [10]

National barriers

Even though the Law of Succession was passed in 1972, women are still denied access to disputing these rights in court due to corruption, lack of knowledge of their rights under the law, and court fees. Government aid to rural areas where technical skill in agriculture may be high is often not very much. This contributes to a lower amount of resources parents can invest in their children's education, especially daughters. Women and children make up most of these households in rural areas, where fathers may be absent for long periods of time. Until 1979, Kenya required people to pay for the first 6 years of schooling, lowering the number of children enrolled in primary schools. Importance of mother education. Of those who were chosen, males were more likely to be chosen than girls. This early disparity inhibited the growth of women in education because women are more likely to invest resources into providing education for their daughters if they have also gotten an education.

Consequences of gender inequality

When denied access to formal education, girls may grow up illiterate and without the tools to gain the economic resources needed to invest in the education of the next generation of Kenyan women. In addition, education often prolongs marriage, and because marriage almost always means the end of education for women, [10] additional years of schooling can give a woman more opportunities to stay in school and gain economic tools before marriage. Girls who do not continue with school are also more likely to encounter forced marriages and the forceful practice of female genital mutilation(FGM). [10]

As of 2023, the lack of menstrual health and reproductive education, and unaffordable products, such as sanitary pads, lead to high rates transactional sex, [11] suicide [12] and increase school drop-out rates. [13] In 2017, Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta mandated the government to provide pubescent girls with sanitary towels free of charge in public schools. [14] In February 2020, the government stated that it was not meeting its goal. [15] [16] [17] In 2016, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation granted US$2.6 million to ZanaAfrica to study the efficacy of sanitary pads and reproductive health education on the quality of life of female Kenyan teens. [18] [19]

When women stay in school, they are more likely to go into areas like teaching, law, and arts subjects over areas like science, engineering and medicine. Between 1980 and 1987, bachelor's degrees in education and arts accounted for between 63.7% and 67.6% of the total attained by women. [20] Trends like this may lead to the narrow isolation of women into service and teaching jobs. [20]

Possible solutions

Increasing the number of female teachers

Beyond the primary school level, female teachers are significantly fewer in number than their male counterparts. Kenya represents a diverse group of religious groups. The second largest group is the Muslim group. Many Muslim families prefer for their daughters to be taught by females only, and increasing the number of female teachers may subsequently increase female participation, as well as increase the number of female administrators. [1] For this to happen, supplementary laws, including those that protect maternity leave, equal pay, and discrimination in the workplace, may have to be implemented. In the prestigious University of Nairobi, according to Chege and Sifuna, less than 20% of teachers are female. [1]

Evening out regional disparities

Rural areas and the specific ethnic groups they compose suffer from disproportionately low resources in education and receive significantly less funds from the government. [8] More schools with more female teachers could be created in rural areas and policies could be enacted to stem the surge of government funds to solely urban areas.

Increasing land and other economic resources to women

Since the land reform acts of the 1950s, it has been difficult for women to possess land, where before they had easy access through traditional kinship arrangements. [8] Government aid has also been low to rural areas and has not directly benefited woman. [8] According to Cubbins, men's education and women's education are both highly related to the education of both girls and boys, and so increasing general educational attainment should decrease gender disparities in education over time. [8]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Demographics of Kenya</span>

The demography of Kenya is monitored by the Kenyan National Bureau of Statistics. Kenya is a multi-ethnic state in East Africa. Its total population was at 47,558,296 as of the 2019 census.

The history of education in Africa can be roughly divided into pre- and post- colonial periods. Since the introduction of formal education to Africa by European colonists, African education, particularly in West and Central Africa, is characterised by both traditional African teachings and European-style schooling systems. The state of education reflects not only the effects of colonialism, but instability resulting from and exacerbated by armed conflicts in many regions of Africa as well as fallout from humanitarian crises such as famine, lack of drinking water, and outbreaks of diseases such as malaria and Ebola, among others. Although the quality of education and the quantity of well-equipped schools and teachers has steadily increased since the onset of the colonial period, there are still numerous inequalities evident in the existing educational systems based on region, economic status, and gender.

Education in Kenya refers to the education system in Kenya. It is considered a basic right that should be offered to every individual. Education in Kenya predates to as early as the 18th century among the Swahili people. The earliest school was established by missionaries in Rabai. During the colonial era, the number of Kenyans with exposure to education steadily increased and a good number of them were privileged to proceed abroad for further education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female education</span> Complex set of issues and debates surrounding education for girls and women

Female education is a catch-all term for a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education for girls and women. It is frequently called girls' education or women's education. It includes areas of gender equality and access to education. The education of women and girls is important for the alleviation of poverty. Broader related topics include single-sex education and religious education for women, in which education is divided along gender lines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Ghana</span> Overview of the status of women in Ghana

The status of women in Ghana and their roles in Ghanaian society has changed over the past few decades. There has been a slow increase in the political participation of Ghanaian women throughout history. Women are given equal rights under the Constitution of Ghana, yet disparities in education, employment, and health for women remain prevalent. Additionally, women have much less access to resources than men in Ghana do. Ghanaian women in rural and urban areas face slightly different challenges. Throughout Ghana, female-headed households are increasing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Women in Nepal</span> Overview of the status of women in Nepal

The status of women in Nepal has varied throughout history. In the early 1990s, like in some other Asian countries, women in Nepal were generally subordinate to men in virtually every aspect of life. Historically, Nepal has been a predominantly patriarchal society where women are generally subordinate to men. Men were considered to be the leader of the family and superior to women. Also, social norms and values were biased in favor of men. This strong bias in favor of sons in society meant that daughters were discriminated against from birth and did not have equal opportunities to achieve all aspects of development. Daughters were deprived of many privileges, including rights, education, healthcare, parental property rights, social status, last rites of dead parents, and were thought to be other's property and liabilities. In the past century, there has been a dramatic positive change in the role and status of women in Nepal, reducing gender inequality. While the 1990 Constitution guaranteed fundamental rights to all citizens without discrimination on the basis of ethnicity, caste, religion, or sex, the modernization of society, along with increased education of the general population, have also played an important role in promoting gender equality. The roles of women have changed in various ways in the modern Nepalese society.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex differences in education</span> Educational discrimination on the basis of sex

Sex differences in education are a type of sex discrimination in the education system affecting both men and women during and after their educational experiences. Men are more likely to be literate on a global average, although higher literacy scores for women are prevalent in many countries. Women are more likely to achieve a tertiary education degree compared to men of the same age. Men tended to receive more education than women in the past, but the gender gap in education has reversed in recent decades in most Western countries and many non-Western countries.

Gender inequality in India refers to health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India. Various international gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as well as on a composite basis, and these indices are controversial.

Education in Lesotho has undergone reforms in recent years, meaning that primary education is now free, universal, and compulsory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Education in Niger</span> Overview of education in Niger

Education in Niger, as in other nations in the Sahelian region of Africa, faces challenges due to poverty and poor access to schools. Although education is compulsory between the ages of seven and fifteen, with primary and secondary school leading into optional higher education, Niger has one of the lowest literacy rates in the world. With assistance from external organizations, Niger has been pursuing educational improvement, reforming how schools utilize languages of instruction, and exploring how the system can close gender gaps in retention and learning.

Educational inequality is the unequal distribution of academic resources, including but not limited to school funding, qualified and experienced teachers, books, and technologies, to socially excluded communities. These communities tend to be historically disadvantaged and oppressed. Individuals belonging to these marginalized groups are often denied access to schools with adequate resources. Inequality leads to major differences in the educational success or efficiency of these individuals and ultimately suppresses social and economic mobility. Inequality in education is broken down into different types: regional inequality, inequality by sex, inequality by social stratification, inequality by parental income, inequality by parent occupation, and many more.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender Parity Index</span> Socioeconomic index

Released by UNESCO, the Gender Parity Index (GPI) is a socioeconomic index usually designed to measure the relative access to education of males and females. It is used by international organizations, particularly in measuring the progress of developing countries. For example, some UNESCO documents consider gender parity in literacy.

Women's education in Pakistan is a fundamental right of every female citizen, according to article thirty-seven of the Constitution of Pakistan, but gender discrepancies still exist in the educational sector. According to the 2011 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Program, approximately twice as many males as females receive a secondary education in Pakistan, and public expenditures on education amount to only 2.7% of the GDP of the country. The unemployment rate of female graduates in Pakistan is approximately 3.8 times higher than that of their male counterparts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Female education in Nigeria</span> Basic human right in Nigeria

Females in Nigeria have a basic human right to be educated, and this right has been recognized since the year 1948 adoption of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) According to a report in 2014, female education has an important impact on the development of a stable, prosperous and healthy nation state resulting in active, productive and empowered citizens. Educating girls develop growth rates, encourages independence of the girl child and reduces social disparities. In 2009, the Nigerian Population Council (NPC) observed that women with higher educational qualifications are more likely to be in formal wage employment than those at the level of primary school education.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined health as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." Identified by the 2012 World Development Report as one of two key human capital endowments, health can influence an individual's ability to reach his or her full potential in society. Yet while gender equality has made the most progress in areas such as education and labor force participation, health inequality between men and women continues to harm many societies to this day.

Educational inequalities in South Sudan can be attributed to a number of factors. The lack of funds and infrastructure, along with a poor and mostly illiterate population makes establishing an effective education system challenging. There are also certain traditional cultural ideas about women which make it more difficult for girls to get an education than their male counterparts.

The socioeconomic impact of female education constitutes a significant area of research within international development. Increases in the amount of female education in regions tends to correlate with high levels of development. Some of the effects are related to economic development. Women's education increases the income of women and leads to growth in GDP. Other effects are related to social development. Educating girls leads to a number of social benefits, including many related to women's empowerment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender inequality in Mexico</span> Overview of gender inequality in Mexico

Gender inequality in Mexico refers to disparate freedoms in health, education, and economic and political abilities between men and women in Mexico. It has been diminishing throughout history, but continues to persist in many forms including the disparity in women's political representation and participation, the gender pay gap, and high rates of domestic violence and femicide. As of 2022, the World Economic Forum ranks Mexico 31st in terms of gender equality out of 146 countries. Structural gender inequality is relatively homogeneous between the Mexican states as there are very few regional differences in the inequalities present.

Education inequality in China exists on multiple levels, with significant disparities occurring along gender, geographical, and ethnic divides. More specifically, disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources nationwide, as well as the availability of education on levels, ranging from basic to higher education.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gender gap in Pakistan</span>

The gender gap in Pakistan refers to the differences between men and women in Pakistan in terms of social, political, and economic participation and rights. The gender gap uses the gender ratio of Pakistan to compare the disparities between men and women in different fields, which mainly disadvantage women. According to the Global Gender Gap Index 2022, Pakistan ranks second to last in terms of the Gender Gap, with only 56.4% of its gender gap closed, a 0.8 percentage point increase from 2021. By percentage, men form about 51.46% and women form about 48.54% of the total population of Pakistan. The sex ratio of Pakistan is 106.010, that means there are about 106 men for every 100 women in Pakistan. The gender gap in Pakistan includes comparisons of gender differences in health, educational, legal, economical, and political aspects.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Chege, Sifuna, Fatuma, Daniel N. "Girls and Women's Education in Kenya: Gender Perspectives and Trends" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. 1 2 UNICEF. "Kenya: Statistics".{{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Kinyanjui, Kabiru (1977). "Regional and Class Inequalities in Provision of Primary Education in Kenya, 1968-1973: A Historical and Socio-Economic Background". Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi. 37: 35–86.
  4. ↑ Baten, Joerg; de Haas, Michiel; Kempter, Elisabeth; Meier zu Selhausen, Felix (2020). "Educational Gender Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa: a Long-term Perspective". Population and Development Review.
  5. ↑ "Education Statistics: Kenya" (PDF). UNICEF. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
  6. ↑ Ochako, Rhoune; Fotso, Jean-Christophe; Ikamari, Lawrence; Khasakhala, Anne (2011-01-10). "Utilization of maternal health services among young women in Kenya: Insights from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey, 2003". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 11 (1): 1. doi: 10.1186/1471-2393-11-1 . ISSN   1471-2393. PMC   3022772 . PMID   21214960.
  7. ↑ Alwy, Alwiya; Susanne Schech (2004). "Ethnic Inequalities in Education in Kenya". International Education. 5 (2): 266–277. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Cubbins, Lisa A. (June 4, 1991). "Women, Men, and the Division of Power: A Study of Gender Stratification in Kenya". Social Forces. 69 (4): 1063–1083. doi:10.1093/sf/69.4.1063.
  9. 1 2 Gomes, Melba (December 1984). "Family Size and Educational Attainment in Kenya". Population and Development Review. 10 (4): 647–660. doi:10.2307/1973285. JSTOR   1973285.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lesorogol, Carolyn K (Summer 2008). "Setting Themselves Apart: Education, Capabilities, and Sexuality Among Samburu Women in Kenya". Anthropological Quarterly. 81 (3): 551–577. doi:10.1353/anq.0.0020. S2CID   143550102.
  11. ↑ "" Quand on connaît la date de ses règles, on peut aller le voir et il donne " : au Kenya, sexe contre serviettes hygiéniques". Le Monde.fr (in French). 2019-07-04. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  12. ↑ Griffin, Tamerra (13 September 2019). "A Teenage Girl Killed Herself After Being Called "Dirty" While On Her Period". BuzzFeed News. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  13. ↑ February 24, 2020, Monday (2020-09-20). "Menstruation: Private groups boost efforts to keep girls in school". Business Daily. Retrieved 2023-01-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ↑ "Kenya's schoolgirls to get free sanitary pads from government". BBC News. 2017-06-22. Retrieved 2023-01-21.
  15. ↑ February 24, 2020, Monday (2020-09-20). "Menstruation: Private groups boost efforts to keep girls in school". Business Daily. Retrieved 2023-01-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ "Group offering free menstrual cups to needy school girls". Nation. 2020-10-10. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  17. ↑ "Could the menstrual cup eradicate period poverty in Kenya?". BBC News. Retrieved 2023-01-20.
  18. ↑ Borsuk, Ken (2016-03-13). "Gates Foundation helps Greenwich native's African mission". GreenwichTime. Retrieved 2023-01-21.
  19. ↑ Howard, Caroline. "The First Woman Of Women: How Melinda Gates Became The World's Most Powerful Advocate For Women And Girls". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-01-21.
  20. 1 2 Hughes, Rees; Kilemi Mwiria (1989). "Kenyan Women, Higher Education and the Labour Market". Comparative Education. 25 (2): 179–195. doi:10.1080/0305006890250206.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.