Halimeda

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Halimeda
Temporal range: Permian - recent [1]
HALIMEDA PICT0294.jpg
Halimeda tuna
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
(unranked): Viridiplantae
Division: Chlorophyta
Class: Ulvophyceae
Order: Bryopsidales
Family: Halimedaceae
Genus: Halimeda
J.V.Lamouroux, 1812
Type species
Halimeda tuna
Species [2]

See text

Halimeda is a genus of green macroalgae. The algal body (thallus) is composed of calcified green segments. Calcium carbonate is deposited in its tissues, making it inedible to most herbivores. However one species, Halimeda tuna , was described as pleasant to eat with oil, vinegar, and salt. [3] [4]

Contents

As in other members of the order Bryopsidales, individual organisms are made up of single multi-nucleate cells. Whole meadows may consist of a single individual alga connected by fine threads running through the substrate. [5]

Halimeda is responsible for distinctive circular deposits in various parts of the Great Barrier Reef on the north-east coast of Queensland, Australia. [6] Halimeda beds form in the western or lee side of outer shield reefs where flow of nutrient-rich water from the open sea allows them to flourish, [7] and are the most extensive, actively accumulating Halimeda beds in the world.

The genus is one of the best studied examples of cryptic species pairs due to morphological convergence within the marine macroalgae. [8] [9] [10]

Some species grow so vigorously in tropical lagoons that the sediment is composed solely of the remains of their tissues, forming a calcareous "Halimeda sand". In fact some tropical reef systems, such as atolls, consist largely of Halimeda sand accumulated over the aeons. [11] Overall, Halimeda represents the most common green algea large grains in the sediment of the lower latitudes. [12]

Taxonomy and nomenclature

The genus Halimeda J.V. Lamouroux belongs to the order Bryopsidales under the family Halimedaceae. It has five monophyletic sections - Halimeda J.V. Lamouroux, Micronesicae Hillis-Col, Opuntia J. Agardh ex De Toni, Pseudo-opuntia J. Agardh ex De Toni, and Rhipsalis J. Agardh ex De Toni [13] - which were based on the differences in the fusions of medullary siphons. [10] Halimeda tuna serves as the holotype for the genus. [14] [15] There are 71 species and 67 infraspecific names listed on Algaebase as of 2015. [14]

Morphology

The thalli of Halimeda is distinctly segmented and calcified. Calcium carbonate is deposited as aragonite and calcification begins as early as 36 hours. Their segments are composed of 60-80% aragonite [8] [16] and are separated by nodes which are non-calcified. [14] The thalli are composed of siphons which are ramified into medullary filaments surrounded by a cortex. The medullary filaments branch out trichotomously to form peripheral utricles which stick to each other to enclose the intersiphonal spaces of each segment. It is in these spaces that aragonite is precipitated. [17] [4]

Halimeda has three types of holdfasts which serve as attachment points to the substrate. The "sprawler" type has a few loose filaments growing at the ends or in between the segments (Fig. 1). In the "rock-grower" type, the matted holdfast is composed of branched filaments which secure the thallus to a rock surface. The last type is the "sand-grower", where the filaments hold on to fine sand particles, forming a root-like structure. [4] Halimeda is coenocytic and siphonous, meaning its cells are not divided by cross walls, and is instead, a continuous filament of cells. This differentiates the genus from Acetabularia, which is another genus of green seaweed that is calcified. [4]

Distribution

Halimeda is highly abundant in the tropics including the Thai-Malay Peninsula, [18] and the Florida Keys. [19] Some species (e.g. H. copiosa, discoidea, gracilis, opuntia, simulans, and tuna) have a global distribution. Halimeda tuna is found solely in the Mediterranean. [14]

Figure 1. Erect and sprawling Halimeda plants Halimeda.svg
Figure 1. Erect and sprawling Halimeda plants

Ecology

Species of Halimeda with sand-grower type holdfasts grown on sandy or muddy substrates, and are thus common in lagoons and backreefs. [14] Those with the "sprawler" type are abundant in forereefs and on coral pinnacles. [14]

Being a calcareous alga, Halimeda has been found to have good potential as a carbon sink and can play an important role in regulating the ocean's carbon budget. [20] Some species such as H. opuntia have been found to produce up to 54.37 g CaCO3 m−1 yr−1. [21]   The genus also contributes to reef building, as it is large producer of carbon sediments on reefs, generating a wide range of sediment sizes from coarse particles to silt and clay. [22] [23]

Although it was largely assumed that its abundance on reefs is due to it being unpalatable to herbivores, more recent studies have found that Halimeda is in fact subject to grazing by some herbivores such as Scarus rivulatus, Hipposcarus longiceps, and Chlorurus microrhinos. [24] Hard coral cover can actually play a key role in maintaining Halimeda biomass on reefs, as one study found that thalli growing under the canopy of Acropora colonies were larger than those in open areas exposed to herbivory. [25]

Figure 2. Fossilised Halimeda Fossil halimeda.jpg
Figure 2. Fossilised Halimeda

Life history

Halimeda reproduces both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction is rarely observed because it is completed in 36 hours. [15] The process begins with gametangia forming on the edges of the segments of the thalli. By the next day, the cells of the thallus will have been entirely converted to gametangia. These will mature overnight and release gametes in the morning of the next day. After which, the thallus is left white and dies in a process known as holocarpy. [4] [15] [26] Some species of Halimeda have been found to reproduce synchronously in mass spawning events similar to that of corals, albeit occurring over several months, with small portions of the population spawning each day. [26] [27] Therefore it is likely that the life span of the genus is limited to a few months to a year. [15]

Information on the phases of Halimeda's life cycle are limited. It is thought that there is a haploid gametophyte phase, which might be followed by a sporophyte phase, since it not yet known when meiosis occurs. [15]

Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative "cloning" through fragmentation and dispersal. [4] [28] [15]

Chemical composition

The genus' photosynthetic pigments are those typical of class Chlorophyta (chlorophyll a and b) and also include siphonoxanthin and siphonein. [15]

Exploitation and cultivation

Currently, Halimeda does not appear to be cultivated for aquaculture purposes.

Utilization

Methanol and dimethyformamide extracts of Halimeda opuntia have been observed to have antibacterial properties against some species of microorganisms, including Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and most significantly, Staphylococcusaureus. [29] Halimeda opuntia ethanol extract exhibited activity against hepatitis C virus (HCV) due to polymerase inhibitory (HCV-796) binding sites based on molecular docking simulation. [30] [31] Methanolic extracts of Halimeda macroloba have recently been found to exhibit cytotoxicity towards MCF-7 and HT 29 cells, which are derived from human breast cancer cell lines and colon cancer lines, respectively. [32] These results therefore suggest the genus' potential for cultivation as a food source. [32] An experiment on rats showed that free phenolic acids of Halimeda monile have antioxidant properties which could aid in protecting against liver problems. [33] Halimeda tuna appears to be used as fodder in the Philippines. [34]

Species

Figure 3. Halimeda fossils. The voids are where the Halimeda was, when it was covered with sand, then subsequently rotted, leaving a hole. Halimeda fossil.jpg
Figure 3. Halimeda fossils. The voids are where the Halimeda was, when it was covered with sand, then subsequently rotted, leaving a hole.
Figure 4. Halimeda copiosa at 10 meters depth in shallow cave Halimeda copiosa at 10 meters depth in shallow cave.jpg
Figure 4. Halimeda copiosa at 10 meters depth in shallow cave

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<i>Codium</i> Genus of algae

Codium is a genus of edible green macroalgae under the order Bryopsidales. The genus name is derived from a Greek word that pertains to the soft texture of its thallus. One of the foremost experts on Codium taxonomy was Paul Claude Silva at the University of California, Berkeley. P.C. Silva was able to describe 36 species for the genus and in honor of his work on Codium, the species C. silvae was named after the late professor.

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References

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  2. ↑ Guiry, M.D.; Guiry, G.M. (2007). "Genus: Halimeda taxonomy browser". AlgaeBase version 4.2 World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
  3. ↑ Bauhin, Jean; Cherler, Johann Heinrich (1651). "Liber XXXIX". Historia plantarum [...] Tomus III (in Latin). Ebroduni. p. 803. OCLC   495081149. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2018. Nà Theophraftus (1. cap. hist. c. 12) scribit circa Opuntem herbulam effe quandam, quae ex foliis radicem mittat, ac cum suauitate mandi possit. Plinius verò ipsum sequutus (21.cap.17) circa Opuntem, inquit, Opuntia est herba, etiam homini-dulcis: mirúmque è folio ejus radicem sièri, ac sic eam nasci. Et certè credibile est hanc plantam recentem cum aceto, sale, & oleo, vel etiam sine sale, non minùs suauiter edi posse quàm Portulacae marinae & sìmilium folia.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hills-Colinvaux, Llewellya (27 May 1980). Baxter, J.H.S.; Russell, Frederick S.; Yonge, Maurice (eds.). Ecology and Taxonomy of Halimeda: Primary Producer of Coral Reefs (PDF). Vol. 17. Academic Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN   9780080579405. OCLC   476214112 . Retrieved 15 February 2018.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ The Cell Biology of the Bryopsidales
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  10. 1 2 Verbruggen H., De Clerck O., Schils T., Kooistra W.H.C.F. & Coppejans E. (2005). Evolution and phylogeography of Halimeda section Halimeda. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37: 789-803
  11. ↑ Hoek, Christiaan; Mann, David; Jahns, H.M. (1995). Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cambridge University Press. p. 434. ISBN   978-0-521-31687-3.
  12. ↑ Bialik, Or M.; Coletti, Giovanni; Mariani, Luca; Commissario, Lucrezi; Desbiolles, Fabien; Meroni, Agostino Niyonkuru (2023-11-11). "Availability and type of energy regulate the global distribution of neritic carbonates". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 19687. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-47029-4. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   10640608 . PMID   37952059.
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  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 M.D. Guiry in Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. October 19, 2015. AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. https://www.algaebase.org  ; searched on January 22, 2022.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Drew, Edward (2011), "Halimeda", in Hopley, David (ed.), Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs, Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 535–539, doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2639-2_92, ISBN   978-90-481-2638-5 , retrieved 2022-01-22
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  17. ↑ Borowitzka, Michael A.; Larkum, Anthony W. D. (1977). "Calcification in the Green Alga Halimeda. I. An Ultrastructure Study of Thallus Development1". Journal of Phycology. 13 (1): 6–16. Bibcode:1977JPcgy..13....6B. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.1977.tb02879.x. ISSN   0022-3646. S2CID   86035589.
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  30. ↑ Abdel-Rahman, Iman A. M.; Attia, Eman Zekry; Aly, Omar M.; Saber, Hani; Rushdi, Mohammed I.; Abdelmohsen, Usama Ramadan (2022-12-01). "Metabolite profiling of green algae Halimeda opuntia to target hepatitis C virus-796 polymerase inhibitors assisted by molecular docking". South African Journal of Botany. 151: 538–543. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2022.10.038. ISSN   0254-6299. S2CID   253209343.
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  32. 1 2 Nazarudin, Muhammad Farhan; Isha, Azizul; Mastuki, Siti Nurulhuda; Ain, Nooraini Mohd.; Mohd Ikhsan, Natrah Fatin; Abidin, Atifa Zainal; Aliyu-Paiko, Mohammed (2020-11-22). "Chemical Composition and Evaluation of the α-Glucosidase Inhibitory and Cytotoxic Properties of Marine Algae Ulva intestinalis, Halimeda macroloba, and Sargassum ilicifolium". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2020: 1–13. doi: 10.1155/2020/2753945 . ISSN   1741-4288. PMC   7704141 . PMID   33299448.
  33. ↑ Mancini-Filho, Jorge; Novoa, Alexis Vidal; González, Ana Elsa Batista; de Andrade-Wartha, Elma Regina S; Mancini, Dalva Assunção Portari (2009-10-01). "Free Phenolic Acids from the Seaweed Halimeda monile with Antioxidant Effect Protecting against Liver Injury". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C. 64 (9–10): 657–663. doi: 10.1515/znc-2009-9-1009 . ISSN   1865-7125. PMID   19957433. S2CID   8846116.
  34. ↑ Ganzon-Fortes, E. T. (2022, January). Introduction To The Seaweeds: Their Characteristics And Economic Importance. REPORT ON THE TRAINING COURSE ON GRACILARIA ALGAE Manila, Philippines 1–30 April 1981. Manila; Philippines. Retrieved from https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/CDrom/aquaculture/a0845t/volume2/docrep/field/009/ag155e/AG155E02.htm#ch2.3
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