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Science is a rigorous, systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the world. Modern science is typically divided into three major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world; the social sciences, which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences, which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules. There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines, because they do not rely on empirical evidence. Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine.
Philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. Amongst its central questions are the difference between science and non-science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose and meaning of science as a human endeavour. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of scientific practice, and overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, logic, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and the concept of truth. Philosophy of science is both a theoretical and empirical discipline, relying on philosophical theorising as well as meta-studies of scientific practice. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than the philosophy of science.
Paul Karl Feyerabend was an Austrian philosopher best known for his work in the philosophy of science. He started his academic career as lecturer in the philosophy of science at the University of Bristol (1955–1958); afterwards, he moved to the University of California, Berkeley, where he taught for three decades (1958–1989).
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The exact sciences or quantitative sciences, sometimes called the exact mathematical sciences, are those sciences "which admit of absolute precision in their results"; especially the mathematical sciences. Examples of the exact sciences are mathematics, optics, astronomy, and physics, which many philosophers from Descartes, Leibniz, and Kant to the logical positivists took as paradigms of rational and objective knowledge. These sciences have been practiced in many cultures from antiquity to modern times. Given their ties to mathematics, the exact sciences are characterized by accurate quantitative expression, precise predictions and/or rigorous methods of testing hypotheses involving quantifiable predictions and measurements.
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Michael Friedman is an American philosopher who serves as Suppes Professor of Philosophy of Science and Professor, by courtesy, of German Studies at Stanford University. Friedman is best known for his work in the philosophy of science, especially on scientific explanation and the philosophy of physics, and for his historical work on Immanuel Kant. Friedman has done historical work on figures in continental philosophy such as Martin Heidegger and Ernst Cassirer. He also serves as the co-director of the Program in History and Philosophy of Science and Technology at Stanford University.
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Klaus Hentschel is a German physicist, historian of science and professor. He is the head of the University of Stuttgart's History of Science and Technology section of its History department.
Helge Stjernholm Kragh is a Danish historian of science who focuses on the development of 19th century physics, chemistry, and astronomy. His published work includes biographies of Paul Dirac, Julius Thomsen and Ludvig Lorenz, and The Oxford Handbook of the History of Modern Cosmology (2019) which he co-edited with Malcolm Longair.
Alice Geraldine Baltina ter Meulen is a Dutch linguist, logician, and philosopher of language whose research topics include genericity in linguistics, intensional logic, generalized quantifiers, discourse representation theory, and the linguistic representation of time. She is a professor emerita at the University of Geneva.
References
- ↑ Birth year from idRef authority control record, retrieved 29 January 2021
- 1 2 3 Curriculum vitae, University of Copenhagen Department of Science Education, 10 January 2006, retrieved 2021-01-29
- ↑ Research Group on History and Philosophy of Science and Science Studies, University of Copenhagen Department of Science Education, 22 August 2019, retrieved 2021-01-29
- ↑ Current members, International Academy of Philosophy of Science, retrieved 2021-01-29
- ↑ Reviews of The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions: Peter Barker (2011), Erkenntnis, doi:10.1007/s10670-011-9333-8; George Botterill (2007), Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews, ; David Gooding (2008), Isis, doi:10.1086/593280, JSTOR 10.1086/593280; P. Kyle Stanford (2008), The British Journal for the History of Science, JSTOR 30160863; Paul Thagard (2009), The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, doi:10.1093/bjps/axn062, JSTOR 25592037; Robert S. Westmann (2009), "Cognizing the Copernican Revolution", Journal for the History of Astronomy, doi:10.1177/002182860904000306
- ↑ "Scientific Method" entry by Hanne Andersen and Brian Hepburn in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , 13 November 2015
