Leccinum holopus

Last updated

Leccinum holopus
Leccinum holopus 101772.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Boletales
Family: Boletaceae
Genus: Leccinum
Species:
L. holopus
Binomial name
Leccinum holopus
(Rostk.) Watling (1960)
Synonyms [1]
  • Boletus holopusRostk. (1844)
  • Trachypus scaber f. holopus(Rostk.) Romagn. (1939)
  • Krombholzia holopus(Rostk.) Pilát (1951)
  • Krombholzia holopoda(Rostk.) Pilát (1951)
  • Trachypus holopus(Rostk.) Konrad & Maubl. (1952)
  • Krombholziella holopus(Rostk.) ŠŠutara (1982)
  • Leccinum niveum(Fr.) Rauschert (1987)
Leccinum holopus
Information icon.svg
Pores icon.pngPores on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svgDepressed cap icon.svg Cap is convex or depressed
Bare stipe icon.svg Stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 Spore print is brown
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgEcology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Edible.pngEdibility is edible

Leccinum holopus, commonly known as the white birch bolete, white bog bolete, or ghost bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae found in northern Asia, Europe, and northeastern North America. It associates with birch trees and is typically found in boggy or swampy areas, often growing among sphagnum moss.

Contents

Fruitbodies (mushrooms) of L. holopus have convex caps measuring up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter. Often pure white—especially in young fruitbodies—the caps sometimes become flushed with buff or brownish tints. The whitish surface of the stipe is covered with small, stiff, projecting scales (scabers) that become tan or darker in age. Some varieties of Leccinum holopus have been described that vary in cap color or staining reaction, but DNA evidence suggests that most are the same taxon. Although the fruitbodies are edible, opinions vary as to their culinary desirability.

Taxonomy

Initially named as a species of Boletus by German mycologist Friedrich Rostkovius in 1844, [2] the fungus was later transferred to Leccinum by Roy Watling in 1960. [3] Synonyms resulting from transfer to different genera include: Krombholzia holopoda and K. holopus (both published by Albert Pilát in 1951); [4] Krombholziella holopus (Josef Šutara, 1989); [5] Trachypus holopus (Paul Konrad and André Maublanc, 1952), [6] and Trachypus scaber f. holopus (Henri Romagnesi, 1939). [1] Other synonyms, according to Index Fungorum, [7] include Leccinum olivaceosum, described from France in 1994, [8] and Leccinum aerugineum (1991). [9] Leccinum holopus is classified in section Scabra of genus Leccinum, a grouping that includes Northern Hemisphere species associating exclusively with birch. [10]

The specific epithet holopus is Greek for "with perfect stalk". [11] Common names given to the fungus include white birch bolete, white bog bolete, [12] and ghost bolete. [13]

Several subtaxa of Leccinum holopus have been described. In form aerugineum, described by Josef Šutara in 2009, the flesh discolors green after injury. [14] The variety americanum, described by Alexander H. Smith and Harry Delbert Thiers in 1971 from collections made in Michigan, injured flesh stains reddish. [15] Lannoy & Estadès described Leccinum nucatum in 1993, [16] a taxon that was later (2007) published as variety nucatum of L. holopus; [17] no molecular evidence was found supporting the existence of this as a distinct taxon, [18] and it is therefore placed into synonymy with L. holopus. [19] Leccinum holopus var. majus, described by Rolf Singer in 1966 (originally published by Singer as Krombholzia scabra f. majus), [20] is another historical variety without independent taxonomic significance. [21]

Description

The flesh of variety americanum stains reddish when cut. Leccinum holopus var. americanum 270311.jpg
The flesh of variety americanum stains reddish when cut.

Fruitbodies of Leccinum holopus have convex to flattened caps measuring 3–10 cm (1.2–3.9 in) in diameter, with a narrow band of sterile tissue surrounding the margin. The caps are initially whitish, but can develop gray, buff, tan, or pinkish tints during maturity; the color may also darken and become greenish with age. [12] The cap surface is initially covered with very fine hairs, [22] but later becomes more or less smooth, often with a sticky texture in age or in moist conditions. The flesh is white and lacks any distinct odor or taste; it can have either little or no bruising color reaction with injury, [12] or may become light pink in variety americanum. [23] On the cap underside is a porous surface comprising pores numbering 2 to 3 per millimeter, each of which is the end of a tube that extends to 2.5 cm (1.0 in) deep. The color of the pore surface ranges from whitish to grayish to dingy brown, and has little color reaction to injury, although it may discolor yellowish or brownish. [12] There is a depression where the pores meet the stipe. [24] The stipe measures 8–14 cm (3.1–5.5 in) long by 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) wide. Its whitish surface is covered with scabers that darken in age to tan or darker. [12] The stipe base often stains bluish. [24]

Leccinum holopus produces a brown spore print. Spores are somewhat fusoid (spindle-shaped) and measure 14–20 by 5–6.5  μm. [12] The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored and measure 28.5–36.5 by 11.5–12.5 μm. Cystidia on the pores are flask-shaped (lageniform) to fusiform, and 39.0–45.5 by 7.5–9.0 μm, while those of the stipe (caulocystidia) are fusiform, club-shaped, or cylindrical, measuring 39.0–54.5 x 9.1–13.5 μm. There are no clamp connections present in the hyphae of L. holopus. [18] The cap cuticle is arranged in the form of a cutis—with hyphae that run parallel to the cap surface. [24]

Several chemical tests can be used to help verify an identification of L. holopus. A drop of ammonium hydroxide solution turns the cap cuticle a pinkish color, but has no reaction with the flesh. A drop of dilute potassium hydroxide (KOH) has no reaction on the cap surface, and either no reaction or a brownish reaction with the flesh. Application of iron(II) sulfate solution does not have a reaction on the cap surface, and either no reaction to slightly olive coloration on the flesh. [24]

Similar species

Leccinellum albellum is similar in appearance to L. holopus, but grows in association with oak and has a more southerly distribution. [25] L. scabrum is a widely distributed lookalike that can be distinguished from L. holopus by its larger size and generally darker colors. [26]

Edibility

Although commonly considered edible, opinions vary on the culinary appeal of Leccinum holopus fruitbodies. Michael Kuo, writing in 100 Edible Mushrooms, considers it a good edible; [27] Peter Roberts and Shelley Evans in The Book of Fungi say "it is edible, but is said to be tasteless and pappy, so is not recommended." [28] Fruitbodies are optimally harvested when they are young, before the flesh becomes too spongy, and before insect larvae establish themselves. Minimal cleaning is required in the field. The mushroom has a mild, somewhat sweet flavor that is enhanced after brief sauteeing. Drying the mushrooms enhances the flavor, but diminishes the sweetness of fresh mushrooms. [27]

Habitat and distribution

Leccinum holopus often fruits among moss in wet areas. Podberiozoviki 4604.jpg
Leccinum holopus often fruits among moss in wet areas.

Leccinum holopus is a mycorrhizal species. [29] It fruits on the ground (often among Sphagnum moss), singly to scattered in wet areas like cedar swamps, bogs, or soggy forests. Like most Leccinum species, [30] the fungus is highly host-specific and associates with birch (Betula). In North America, the range of Leccinum holopus extends from eastern Canada to New York, extending west to the northern Rocky Mountains, roughly coinciding with the distribution of the paper birch (Betula papyrifera). In this range, it is common and fruits from August to October. [12] L. holopus var. americanum is known only from North America. [28] The fungus is rare in southern Europe, but more common in the Sphagnum swamps in the north. [31] In Asia, it has been recorded from Taiwan and Qinghai (China). [32]

Fruitbodies of L. holopus are a source of food for fly species such as Pegomya winthemi (family Anthomyiidae) and Megaelia pygmaeoides (family Phoridae). [33]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boletaceae</span> Family of fungi

The Boletaceae are a family of mushroom-forming fungi, primarily characterised by small pores on the spore-bearing hymenial surface, instead of gills as are found in most agarics. Nearly as widely distributed as the agarics, the family is renowned for hosting some prime edible species highly sought after by mushroom hunters worldwide, such as the cep or king bolete . A number of rare or threatened species are also present in the family, that have become the focus of increasing conservation concerns. As a whole, the typical members of the family are commonly known as boletes.

<i>Leccinum scabrum</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum scabrum, commonly known as the rough-stemmed bolete, scaber stalk, and birch bolete, is an edible mushroom in the family Boletaceae, and was formerly classified as Boletus scaber. The birch bolete is widespread in Europe, in the Himalayas in Asia, and elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, occurring only in mycorrhizal association with birch trees. It fruits from June to October. This mushroom is also becoming increasingly common in Australia and New Zealand where it is likely introduced.

<i>Leccinum</i> Genus of fungi

Leccinum is a genus of fungi in the family Boletaceae. It was the name given first to a series of fungi within the genus Boletus, then erected as a new genus last century. Their main distinguishing feature is the small, rigid projections (scabers) that give a rough texture to their stalks. The genus name was coined from the Italian Leccino, for a type of rough-stemmed bolete. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in north temperate regions, and contains about 75 species.

<i>Caloboletus calopus</i> Species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in Asia, Northern Europe and North America

Caloboletus calopus, commonly known as the bitter bolete, bitter beech bolete or scarlet-stemmed bolete, is a fungus of the bolete family, found in Asia, Northern Europe and North America. Appearing in coniferous and deciduous woodland in summer and autumn, the stout fruit bodies are attractively coloured, with a beige to olive cap up to 15 cm (6 in) across, yellow pores, and a reddish stipe up to 15 cm (6 in) long and 5 cm (2 in) wide. The pale yellow flesh stains blue when broken or bruised.

<i>Leccinum aurantiacum</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum aurantiacum is a species of fungus in the genus Leccinum found in forests of Eurasia and North America. It has a large, characteristically red-capped fruiting body. In North America, it is sometimes referred to by the common name red-capped scaber stalk. Some uncertainties exist regarding the taxonomic classification of this species in Europe and North America. It is considered edible, but must be cooked thoroughly.

<i>Xerocomus subtomentosus</i> Species of fungus

Xerocomus subtomentosus, commonly known as suede bolete, brown and yellow bolete , boring brown bolete or yellow-cracked bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. The fungus was initially described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 and known for many years as Boletus subtomentosus. It is edible, though not as highly regarded as other bolete mushrooms.

<i>Leccinum manzanitae</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum manzanitae is an edible species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. Described as new to science in 1971, it is commonly known as the manzanita bolete for its usual mycorrhizal association with manzanita trees. Its fruit bodies (mushrooms) have sticky reddish to brown caps up to 20 cm (8 in), and its stipes are up to 16 cm (6.3 in) long and 3.5 cm (1.4 in) thick. They have a whitish background color punctuated with small black scales known as scabers. Found only in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada, it is the most common Leccinum species in California. The mushroom is edible, although opinions vary as to its quality. L. manzanitae can be usually distinguished from other similar bolete mushrooms by its large size, reddish cap, dark scabers on a whitish stipe, and association with manzanita and madrone.

<i>Suillellus amygdalinus</i> Species of fungus

Suillellus amygdalinus is a fungus of the bolete family found in western North America. The fruit bodies, or mushrooms, are characterized by their thick, red to brown caps, red pores, and the strong bluing reaction observed when the mushroom tissue is injured or cut. The cap can reach diameters of up to 12 cm (4.7 in) and the stipe 9 cm (3.5 in) long by 3 cm (1.2 in) thick at maturity. This mushroom has been found in manzanita and madrone woodlands of central California north to southern Oregon. Although the edibility of the mushroom is not known with certainty, it may be poisonous, and is not recommended for consumption. Other similar red-pored, bluing boletes from North America, including Rubroboletus eastwoodiae, Boletus luridiformis, and B. subvelutipes, can be distinguished from S. amygdalinus either by the color of the cap, the degree of reticulation on the stipe, or by location.

<i>Gyroporus cyanescens</i> Species of fungus

Gyroporus cyanescens, commonly known as the bluing bolete or the cornflower bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Gyroporaceae. First described from France in 1788, the species is found in Asia, Australia, Europe, and eastern North America, where it grows on the ground in coniferous and mixed forests.

<i>Leccinum arenicola</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum arenicola is a species of bolete mushroom in the family Boletaceae. Described in 1979, the fruit bodies (mushrooms) grow in sand dunes from New Brunswick south to Cape Cod.

<i>Agrocybe putaminum</i> Species of fungus

Agrocybe putaminum, commonly known as the mulch fieldcap, is a species of agaric fungus in the family Strophariaceae in the Agrocybe sororia complex. Described as new to science in 1913, it is found in Asia, Australia, Europe, and western North America, where it grows in parks, gardens, and roadsides in woodchip mulch. Fruitbodies of the fungus have a dull brownish-orange cap with a matte texture, a grooved stipe, and a bitter, mealy taste.

<i>Harrya chromapes</i> Species of fungus

Harrya chromapes, commonly known as the yellowfoot bolete or the chrome-footed bolete, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. The bolete is found in eastern North America, Costa Rica, and eastern Asia, where it grows on the ground, in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous and coniferous trees. Fruit bodies have smooth, rose-pink caps that are initially convex before flattening out. The pores on the cap undersurface are white, aging to a pale pink as the spores mature. The thick stipe has fine pink or reddish dots (scabers), and is white to pinkish but with a bright yellow base. The mushrooms are edible but are popular with insects, and so they are often infested with maggots.

<i>Leccinum cyaneobasileucum</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum cyaneobasileucum is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. Originally found growing under silver birch, it was described as new to science in 1991. The fungus produces fruit bodies with caps measuring 5–15 cm (2–6 in) wide that range in colour from hazel, to reddish-yellow, to walnut brown. The white to grey stipe measures 7–20 cm (3–8 in) long by 0.8–2 cm (0.3–0.8 in) thick and is covered with brownish scales. In deposit the spores are walnut brown; microscopically, they are somewhat spindle shaped and measure 14–18 by 5–6 μm. L. cyaneobasileucum grows under birch, usually in moss. The mushroom is edible but not particularly tasty.

<i>Leccinum insigne</i> Species of fungus

Leccinum insigne, commonly known as the aspen bolete or the aspen scaber stalk, is a species of bolete fungus in the family Boletaceae. Described as new to science in 1966, it is found in North America, where its range extends from eastern Canada south to New Jersey and west to the northern Rocky Mountains. It is a good edible mushroom, but there have been documented cases of adverse reactions; these range from headaches to gastrointestinal distress, which may or may not be attributed to food sensitivities alone. The specific epithet insigne means "distinctive or outstanding".

<i>Leccinellum rugosiceps</i> Species of fungus

Leccinellum rugosiceps, commonly known as the wrinkled Leccinum, is a species of bolete fungus. It is found in Asia, North America, Central America, and South America, where it grows in an ectomycorrhizal association with oak. Fruitbodies have convex, yellowish caps up to 15 cm (5.9 in) in diameter. In age, the cap surface becomes wrinkled, often revealing white cracks. The stipe is up to 10 cm (3.9 in) long and 3 cm (1.2 in) wide, with brown scabers on an underlying yellowish surface. It has firm flesh that stains initially pinkish to reddish and then to grayish or blackish when injured. The pore surface on the cap underside is yellowish. Fruitbodies are edible, although opinions vary as to their desirability.

<i>Sutorius eximius</i> Species of fungus

Sutorius eximius, commonly known as the lilac-brown bolete, is a species of fungus in the family Boletaceae. This bolete produces fruit bodies that are dark purple to chocolate brown in color with a smooth cap, a finely scaly stipe, and a reddish-brown spore print. The tiny pores on the cap underside are chocolate to violet brown. It is widely distributed, having been recorded on North America, South America, and Asia, where it grows in a mycorrhizal relationship with both coniferous and deciduous trees.

<i>Hemileccinum impolitum</i> Species of fungus

Hemileccinum impolitum is a basidiomycete fungus of the family Boletaceae, native to Europe. It is commonly referred to as the iodine bolete, because its fruit bodies tend to emit an iodine-like odour when cut, more detectable in the stem base or overripe specimens.

<i>Imleria badia</i> Edible species of fungus in the family Boletaceae found in Europe and North America

Imleria badia, commonly known as the bay bolete, is an edible, pored mushroom found in Eurasia and North America, where it grows in coniferous or mixed woods on the ground or on decaying tree stumps, sometimes in prolific numbers. Both the common and scientific names refer to the bay- or chestnut-coloured cap, which is almost spherical in young specimens before broadening and flattening out to a diameter up to 15 cm (6 in). On the cap underside are small yellowish pores that turn dull blue-grey when bruised. The smooth, cylindrical stipe, measuring 4–9 cm long by 1–2 cm thick, is coloured like the cap, but paler. Some varieties have been described from eastern North America, differing from the main type in both macroscopic and microscopic morphology.

<i>Leccinellum lepidum</i> Species of fungus

Leccinellum lepidum is a species of bolete in the family Boletaceae. Originally described as Boletus lepidus in 1965, the fungus has gone through controversial taxonomic treatments over the years and was subsequently transferred to genus Krombholziella in 1985, to genus Leccinum in 1990, and to genus Leccinellum in 2003. It is the sister-species of Leccinellum corsicum, with which it had been erroneously synonymised by some authors in the past.

References

  1. 1 2 "Leccinum holopus (Rostk.) Watling". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Retrieved 2015-01-17.
  2. ↑ Rostkovius FWT. Deutschlands Flora, Abt. III. Die Pilze Deutschlands (in German). Vol. 5-23/24. Nürnberg: Sturm. pp. 85–132 (see p. 131, t. 48.
  3. ↑ Watling R. (1960). "British records". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 43 (4): 692. doi:10.1016/s0007-1536(60)80061-7.
  4. ↑ Pilát A. (1951). Klíc urcování nasich hub hribovitých a bedlovitých (in Czech). Prague: Brázda. p. 65.
  5. ↑ Šutara J. (1982). "Nomenclatural problems concerning the generic name Krombholziella R. Maire". Česká Mykologie. 36 (2): 77–84.
  6. ↑ Konrad P, Maublanc A (1952). Les Agaricales 2: Russulacées, Hygrophoracées, Gomphidriacées, Paxillacées, Bolétacées. Encyclopédie Mycologique (in French). Vol. 20. Paris: Paul Lechevalier. p. 116.
  7. ↑ "GSD Species Synonymy: Leccinum holopus (Rostk.) Watling". Species Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2015-01-17.
  8. ↑ Lannoy G, Estadès A (1994). "Contribution à l'étude du genre Leccinum S. F. Gray – 4 – Essai de clé monographique du genre Leccinum S. F. Gray". Documents Mycologiques (in French). 24: 1–29.
  9. ↑ Lannoy G, Estadès A (1991). "Contribution à l'étude du genre Leccinum S. F. Gray – 1 – Étude de L. variicolor, oxydabile et de quelques satellites, formes et variétés". Documents Mycologiques (in French). 21 (81): 11–26.
  10. ↑ den Bakker HC, Zuccarello GC, Kuyper TW, Noordeloos ME (2007). "Phylogeographic patterns in Leccinum sect. Scabra and the status of the arctic-alpine species L. rotundifoliae". Mycological Research. 111 (6): 663–72. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.03.008. PMID   17604144.
  11. ↑ Schalkwijk-Barendsen HME. (1991). Mushrooms of Western Canada. Edmonton, Canada: Lone Pine Publishing. p.  201. ISBN   978-0-919433-47-2.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bessette AR, Bessette A, Roody WC (2000). North American Boletes: A Color Guide to the Fleshy Pored Mushrooms. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. p. 204. ISBN   978-0-8156-0588-1.
  13. ↑ Phillips R. (2013). Mushrooms: A Comprehensive Guide to Mushroom Identification. Basingstoke and Oxford, UK: Pan Macmillan. p. 290. ISBN   978-1-4472-6402-6.
  14. ↑ Šutara J, Mikšík M, Janda V (2009). Hřibovité Houby. Atlasy a Pruvodce (in Czech). Prague: Academia Nakladatelství. p. 38. ISBN   978-80-200-1717-8.
  15. ↑ Smith AH, Thiers HD (1971). The Boletes of Michigan. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. pp. 182–4.
  16. ↑ Lannoy G, Estadès A (1993). "Contribution à l'étude du genre Leccinum S. F. Gray – 3 – Étude de Leccinum nucatum sp. nov., Leccinum brunneogriseolum fo. chlorinum fo. nov. et L. molle avec comb. nov. de L. coloripes Blum". Documents Mycologiques (in French). 23 (89): 63–71.
  17. ↑ Klofac W. (2007). "Schlüssel zur Bestimmung von Frischfunden der europäischen Arten der Boletales mit röhrigem Hymenophor". Österreichische Zeitschrift für Pilzkunde (in German). 16: 187–279 (see p. 257).
  18. 1 2 den Bakker HC, Noordeloos ME. (2009). "The genus Leccinum in Western and Central Europe" . Retrieved 2015-01-18.
  19. ↑ "Record Details: Leccinum holopus var. nucatum (Lannoy & Estadès) Klofac". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2015-01-18.
  20. ↑ Singer R. (1966). Die Pilze Mitteleuropas, Band VI: Teil 2, Die Boletoideaea und Strobilomycetaceae (in German). Bad Heilbrun: Klinkhardt. p. 98.
  21. ↑ "Record Details: Leccinum holopus var. majus (Singer) Singer". Index Fungorum. CAB International. Retrieved 2015-01-18.
  22. ↑ Jordan M. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Fungi of Britain and Europe. London, UK: Frances Lincoln. p. 341. ISBN   978-0-7112-2378-3.
  23. ↑ Miller HR, Miller OK Jr (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guides. p. 371. ISBN   978-0-7627-3109-1.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Kuo M, Methven A (2014). Mushrooms of the Midwest. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. p. 253. ISBN   978-0-252-07976-4.
  25. ↑ Binion D. (2008). Macrofungi Associated with Oaks of Eastern North America. Morgantown, West Virginia: West Virginia University Press. p. 165. ISBN   978-1-933202-36-5.
  26. ↑ McKnight VB, McKnight KH (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Peterson Field Guides. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 112. ISBN   978-0-395-91090-0.
  27. 1 2 Kuo M. (2007). 100 Edible Mushrooms. Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. pp.  185–6. ISBN   978-0-472-03126-9.
  28. 1 2 Roberts P, Evans S (2011). The Book of Fungi. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 349. ISBN   978-0-226-72117-0.
  29. ↑ Kuo M. (April 2007). "Leccinum holopus". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2015-01-24.
  30. ↑ den Bakker HC, Zuccarello GC, Kuyper TW, Noordeloos ME (2004). "Evolution and host specificity in the ectomycorrhizal genus Leccinum". New Phytologist. 163 (1): 201–215. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01090.x . PMID   33873790. Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg
  31. ↑ Kibby G. (2006). "Leccinum revisited: A new synoptic key to species" (PDF). Field Mycology. 7 (4): 77–87. doi:10.1016/S1468-1641(10)60573-7.
  32. ↑ Fu SZ, Wang QB, Yao YJ (2006). "An annotated checklist of Leccinum in China". Mycotaxon. 96: 47–50.
  33. ↑ Bruns T. (1984). "Insect mycophagy in the Boletales: Fungivore diversity and the mushroom habitat". In Wheeler Q, Blackwell M (eds.). Fungus-Insect Relationships: Perspectives in Ecology and Evolution. New York: Columbia University Press. pp.  91–129. ISBN   978-0-231-05694-6.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.