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Lee S. Shulman | |
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| Born | September 28, 1938 |
| Awards | E. L. Thorndike Award (1995) |
| Academic background | |
| Alma mater | The University of Chicago |
| Academic work | |
| Institutions | Stanford Graduate School of Education |
| Doctoral students | Sam Wineburg |
Lee S. Shulman (born September 28,1938) is an American educational psychologist and reformer. He has made notable contributions to the study of teaching,assessment of teaching,and the fields of medicine,science,mathematics,and the scholarship of teaching and learning.
Shulman was born on September 28,1938,in Chicago,Illinois. [1] He was the only son of Jewish immigrants who owned a small delicatessen on the Northwest Side of Chicago. [2] He attended a Yeshiva high school. [3]
Shulman is a professor emeritus at Stanford Graduate School of Education,past president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching,past president of the American Educational Research Association,and the recipient of several awards recognizing his educational research. From 1963 to 1982,Shulman was a faculty member at Michigan State University,where he founded and co-directed the Institute for Research on Teaching (IRT).
Shulman is credited with popularizing the phrase "pedagogical content knowledge" (PCK). He was the 2006 recipient of the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Education for his 2004 book,The Wisdom of Practice:Essays on Teaching,Learning and Learning to Teach. [4]
Shulman is also recognized for his publications and speeches about the higher education field of the scholarship of teaching and learning (SoTL). He notably distinguished SoTL from scholarly teaching,which he described as the work "every one of us should be engaged in every day that we are in a classroom,in our office with students,tutoring,lecturing,conducting discussions,all the roles we play pedagogically." [5] SoTL,on the other hand,is "when we step back and reflect systematically on the teaching we have done,in a form that can be publicly reviewed and built upon by our peers." [5] This emphasis on public review and developing a collective body of knowledge was tied to his larger point that SoTL removes the widespread experience of "pedagogical solitude" by relocating postsecondary teaching within "a community of scholars." [5] This,in turn,will elevate the status of teaching in higher education and expand what's known about teaching and learning in higher education.
Shulman (1986) claimed that the emphases on teachers' subject matter knowledge and pedagogy were being treated as mutually exclusive. He believed that teacher education programs should combine the two knowledge fields. To address this dichotomy,he introduced the notion of pedagogical content knowledge that includes pedagogical knowledge and content knowledge,among other categories. His initial description of teacher knowledge included curriculum knowledge,and knowledge of educational contexts.
Education is the transmission of knowledge,skills,and character traits and manifests in various forms. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework,such as public schools,following a curriculum. Non-formal education also follows a structured approach but occurs outside the formal schooling system,while informal education entails unstructured learning through daily experiences. Formal and non-formal education are categorized into levels,including early childhood education,primary education,secondary education,and tertiary education. Other classifications focus on teaching methods,such as teacher-centered and student-centered education,and on subjects,such as science education,language education,and physical education. Additionally,the term "education" can denote the mental states and qualities of educated individuals and the academic field studying educational phenomena.
Learning theory describes how students receive,process,and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive,emotional,and environmental influences,as well as prior experience,all play a part in how understanding,or a worldview,is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.
A teaching method is a set of principles and methods used by teachers to enable student learning. These strategies are determined partly on subject matter to be taught,partly by the relative expertise of the learners,and partly by constraints caused by the learning environment. For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has take into account the learner,the nature of the subject matter,and the type of learning it is supposed to bring about.
Student-centered learning,also known as learner-centered education,broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original usage,student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the hands of students by imparting to them skills,and the basis on how to learn a specific subject and schemata required to measure up to the specific performance requirement. Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-solving. Student-centered learning theory and practice are based on the constructivist learning theory that emphasizes the learner's critical role in constructing meaning from new information and prior experience.
Pedagogy,most commonly understood as the approach to teaching,is the theory and practice of learning,and how this process influences,and is influenced by,the social,political,and psychological development of learners. Pedagogy,taken as an academic discipline,is the study of how knowledge and skills are imparted in an educational context,and it considers the interactions that take place during learning. Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary greatly as they reflect different social,political,and cultural contexts.
Experiential education is a philosophy of education that describes the process that occurs between a teacher and student that infuses direct experience with the learning environment and content. This concept is distinct from experiential learning,however experiential learning is a subfield and operates under the methodologies associated with experiential education. The Association for Experiential Education regards experiential education as "a philosophy that informs many methodologies in which educators purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge,develop skills,clarify values,and develop people's capacity to contribute to their communities". The Journal of Experiential Education publishes peer-reviewed empirical and theoretical academic research within the field.
A didactic method is a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational style to present information to students. The didactic method of instruction is often contrasted with dialectics and the Socratic method;the term can also be used to refer to a specific didactic method,as for instance constructivist didactics.
Andragogy refers to methods and principles used in adult education. The word comes from the Greek ἀνδρ- (andr-),meaning "adult male",and ἀγωγός(agogos),meaning "leader of". Therefore,andragogy literally means "leading men ",whereas "pedagogy" literally means "leading children".
Constructivism in education is a theory that suggests that learners do not passively acquire knowledge through direct instruction. Instead,they construct their understanding through experiences and social interaction,integrating new information with their existing knowledge. This theory originates from Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CFAT) is a U.S.-based education policy and research center. It was founded by Andrew Carnegie in 1905 and chartered in 1906 by an act of the United States Congress. Among its most notable accomplishments are the development of the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association (TIAA),the Flexner Report on medical education,the Carnegie Unit,the Educational Testing Service,and the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education.
Technology integration is defined as the use of technology to enhance and support the educational environment. Technology integration in the classroom can also support classroom instruction by creating opportunities for students to complete assignments on the computer rather than with normal pencil and paper. In a larger sense,technology integration can also refer to the use of an integration platform and application programming interface (API) in the management of a school,to integrate disparate SaaS applications,databases,and programs used by an educational institution so that their data can be shared in real-time across all systems on campus,thus supporting students' education by improving data quality and access for faculty and staff.
"Curriculum integration with the use of technology involves the infusion of technology as a tool to enhance the learning in a content area or multidisciplinary setting... Effective technology integration is achieved when students can select technology tools to help them obtain information on time,analyze and synthesize it,and present it professionally to an authentic audience. Technology should become an integral part of how the classroom functions—as accessible as all other classroom tools. The focus in each lesson or unit is the curriculum outcome,not the technology."
Culturally relevant teaching is instruction that takes into account students' cultural differences. Making education culturally relevant is thought to improve academic achievement,but understandings of the construct have developed over time Key characteristics and principles define the term,and research has allowed for the development and sharing of guidelines and associated teaching practices. Although examples of culturally relevant teaching programs exist,implementing it can be challenging.
Teacher education or teacher training refers to programs,policies,procedures,and provision designed to equip (prospective) teachers with the knowledge,attitudes,behaviors,approaches,methodologies and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom,school,and wider community. The professionals who engage in training the prospective teachers are called teacher educators.
The scholarship of teaching and learning is often defined as systematic inquiry into student learning which advances the practice of teaching in higher education by making inquiry findings public. Building on this definition,Peter Felten identified 5 principles for good practice in SOTL:(1) inquiry focused on student learning,(2) grounded in context,(3) methodologically sound,(4) conducted in partnership with students,(5) appropriately public.
Kathryn Patricia Cross was an American scholar of educational research. Throughout her career,she explored adult education and higher learning,discussing methodology and pedagogy in terms of remediation and advancement in the university system.
Banking model of education is a term coined by Paulo Freire to describe and critique the established education system in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed. The name refers to the metaphor of students as containers into which educators must put knowledge. Freire argued that this model reinforces a lack of critical thinking and knowledge ownership in students,which in turn reinforces oppression,in contrast to Freire's understanding of knowledge as the result of a human,creative process.
Second-language acquisition classroom research is an area of research in second-language acquisition concerned with how people learn languages in educational settings. There is a significant overlap between classroom research and language education. Classroom research is empirical,basing its findings on data and statistics wherever possible. It is also more concerned with what the learners do in the classroom than with what the teacher does. Where language teaching methods may only concentrate on the activities the teacher plans for the class,classroom research concentrates on the effect the things the teacher does has on the students.
The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework is an educational model that describes the intersections between technology,pedagogy,and content for the effective integration of technology into teaching. TPACK became popular in the early 2000s.
Richard Francis Gunstone is an Australian academic and researcher. He is the Emeritus Professor of Science and Technology Education at Monash University. He has authored or co-authored 8 books along with various monographs and chapters and has published over a hundred research papers. He has coedited 6 books providing reports of contemporary research in a particular area of science education. His principle research areas include teaching,curriculum,assessment,teacher development,science,physics and engineering.
Mathematics for social justice is a pedagogical approach to mathematics education that seeks to incorporate lessons from critical mathematics pedagogy and similar educational philosophies into the teaching of mathematics at schools and colleges. The approach tries to empower students on their way to developing a positive mathematics identity and becoming active,numerically literate citizens who can navigate and participate in society. Mathematics for social justice puts particular emphasis on overcoming social inequalities. Its proponents,for example,Bob Moses,may understand numerical literacy as a civil right. Many of the founders of the movement,e.g. Eric Gutstein,were initially mathematics teachers,but the movement has since expanded to include the teaching of mathematics at colleges and universities. Their educational approach is influenced by earlier critical pedagogy advocates such as Paulo Freire and others. Mathematics for social justice has been criticised,however,its proponents argue that it both fits into existing teaching frameworks and promotes students' success in mathematics.
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