Lestodon

Last updated

Lestodon
Temporal range: Early Pliocene-Early Holocene (Montehermosan-Lujanian)
~5.332–0.10  Ma
Lestodon at AMNH.jpg
L. armatus skeleton at the American Museum of Natural History
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Pilosa
Family:† Mylodontidae
Subfamily:† Mylodontinae
Tribe:† Lestodontini
Genus:† Lestodon
Gervais 1855
Species

† L. armatusGervais 1855, type

Lestodon is an extinct genus of giant ground sloth native to South America during the Pleistocene epoch. Its fossil remains have been primarily been found in the Pampas and adjacent regions. The largest member of the family Mylodontidae, [1] It is estimated to have weighed 4,100 kilograms (4.5 short tons). It was a herbivore and primarily fed on the grasses and low-growing plants.

Contents

Research history and taxonomy

The genus Lestodon and the species Lestodon armatus was erected by Paul Gervais in 1855, based on a fragments of the upper and lower jaws with teeth found in Late Pleistocene deposits what is currently Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. [2] [3] The genus name, which means "thief tooth", is in reference to the large caniniform teeth at the front of the jaw. [4] In 1934, a second species L. australis was erected by Lucas Kraglievich, but this is now regarded as a junior synonym of L. armatus. [3] In 2004, two additonal species L. urumaquensis and L. codorensis were described based on fossils found in Late Miocene/Early Pliocene aged deposits in Venezuela. [5] However other authors have doubted the placement of these taxa in Lestodon, with later studies generally placing them in the separate genus Bolivartherium. [6]

Lestodon is a member of the family Mylodontidae, meaning that its closest living relatives are two-toed sloths. Phylogeny of sloths based on DNA after Delsuc et al. 2019. [7]

Folivora  (sloths)

Within Mylodontidae, Lestodon is considered to be a member of the subfamily Mylodontinae (when Scelidotheriidae is not considered a separate family). It is the titular genus of the tribe Lestodontini, which often aside from Lestodon, includes Thinobadistes , Lestobradys and Bolivartherium, [8] though this grouping as a whole is not always recovered as monophyletic. [9]

Description

Size

Skeletal diagram of Lestodon armatus in lateral view Lestodon skeleton.jpg
Skeletal diagram of Lestodon armatus in lateral view

Lestodon armatus is the largest known mylodontid sloth. [10] Volumetric estimates suggests a body mass of around 4,100 kilograms (9,000 lb), [11] making it one of the largest known ground sloths, alongside the megatheres Megatherium and Eremotherium. [12]

Skull

Skull in side-on view Lestodon skull.png
Skull in side-on view

The skull of Lestodon armatus has a very wide muzzle. The premaxilllae are weakly attached to the maxillae (often resulting resulting in them being absent in recovered fossils). The nasal septum was think and weak, and is rarely preserved. The nasal cartilage was apparently not ossified. [13] The roof of the muzzle is marginally concave along its midline. The maxilla extends more towards the front of the skull on its lower part. The nasofrontal suture is U-shaped, and opens forwards. The foramen magnum is oval-shaped. [3] The teeth were quite hypsodont (high-crowned), though not to the same degree as achieved in some other mylodontids. [14] At the front of the mouth there were two pairs of tusk-like "caniniform" teeth on the upper and lower jaws which are separated from the molariform teeth by a large diastema (gap). [3] The lower caniniform teeth appear to exhibit sexual dimorphism in regard to size. [15] The molariform teeth are largely similar to each other, aside from the last lower molar "which has two rounded lobes separated by a narrow constriction giving it a figure-8 shape". [3] There are 5 and 4 teeth in each half of the upper and lower jaw respectively, as is typical of mylodontids. [15]

Axial skeleton

The first thoracic vertebra has a much higher neural spine than the seventh cervical vertebra. [16]

Limbs

The olecranon process of the ulna of Lestodom armatus is slightly short compared to body size, though large in absolute terms. [11] The tibia and fibula of L. armatus are fused together at the end closest to the hip (proximal). [17] The tibia is relatively short compared to body size. [4] Like many other ground sloths, the foot is inwardly rotated, meaning that the weight was borne on the outer digits of the foot as well as on the calcaneus. [18] Like other ground sloths, the hands had ungual phalanges indicating well-developed claws. [19]

Distribution

Lestodon armatus is primarily known from the Pampas and the Chaco-Paraná Basin, including what is now southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and northern Argentina. [20] [21]

Ecology

Life restoration of a group of Lestodon Lestodon life restoration.png
Life restoration of a group of Lestodon

Lestodon is generally regarded as having a grazing diet. [22] Lestodon is thought to have been a bulk feeder that indiscriminately consumed large amounts of vegetation, using its probably square, white rhinoceros-like lips to pluck grass and other low lying plants in combination with the tongue. [13] Isotopic analysis has suggested that Lestodon consumed a varying proportion of C3 and C4 plants, depending on locality. [23] [24] Although the proportions of its forelimbs are similar to those of mylodontids like Glossotherium that are suggested to have engaged in digging, the strength of its forelimb is much lower than those mylodontids, indicating that they were not substantially adapted to this task. [11] If Lestodon engaged in digging at all, it may have engaged in it only in short intervals. [19] Lestodon, like other ground sloths, was likely incapable of running from predators, instead relying on its claws to defend itself as living sloths do. [18]

A bonebed of 13 Lestodon armatus individuals of different ages found together at the Playa del Barco site in Argentina suggests that the species engaged in gregarious behaviour, living at least some of the time in social groups. [10] Analysis of the stapes of L. armatus suggests that they were adapted to hearing-low frequency sounds, suggesting that they may have communicated with each other using low frequency sound, like living elephants. [25] It has been suggested based on the likely sexual dimorphism of the lower tusk-like caniniforms, that Lestodon armatus had a polygynous mating system, with males possibly engaging in combat with each other over females. [15]

Relationship with humans and extinction

Researchers working at the Arroyo del Vizcaíno site near Sauce, Uruguay suggested that Lestodon was hunted by humans about 30,000 years ago. This was based on analysis of Lestodon bones. Deep slash markings on some of them were suggested to be from the use of human stone tools. [26] However, there are no unambiguous stone tools at the site, and the supposed "cut marks" could easily have been generated by non-human activites, such as trampling. [27] The site is also considerably older than the earliest widely accepted dates for human presence in South America (which dates to around 16-14,500 years ago). [28]

Lestodon became extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene as part of the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions, along with the vast majority of large mammals native to South America, including all of those above 500 kilograms (1,100 lb). [29] Though from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Holocene climatic optimum the area of suitable habitat for Lestodon decreased, mostly as a result of raised sea levels, the greater habitat reduction during the Last Interglacial (which Lestodon survived) suggests that climate change was not the primary driver of the extinction of Lestodon. [20] The extinction interval of Lestodon and other megafauna coincides with the appearance and abundance of Fishtail points, which are suggested to have been used to hunt megafauna, across the Pampas region and South America more broadly, which may have been a contributory factor in the extinctions. [30] At the Paso Otero 5 site in the Pampas of northeast Argentina, Fishtail points are associated with burned bones of Lestodon and other extinct megafauna. The bones appear to have been deliberately burned as a source of fuel. Due to the poor preservation of the bones there is no clear evidence of human modification. [31]

Related Research Articles

<i>Megatherium</i> Genus of ground sloth (extinct)

Megatherium is an extinct genus of ground sloths endemic to South America that lived from the Early Pliocene through the end of the Pleistocene. It is best known for the elephant-sized type species M. americanum, native to the Pampas through southern Bolivia during the Pleistocene. Various other species belonging to the subgenus Pseudomegatherium ranging in size comparable to considerably smaller than M. americanum are known from the Andean region.

<i>Mylodon</i> An extinct genus of ground sloths

Mylodon is a genus of extinct ground sloth belonging to the family Mylodontidae, known from southern South America. With a total length of 3 to 4 m and a body mass of 1-2 tonnes, it is one of the largest mylodontids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ground sloth</span> Diverse group of extinct sloth species

Ground sloths are a diverse group of extinct sloths in the mammalian superorder Xenarthra. Ground sloths varied widely in size, with the largest, belonging to genera Megatherium, Lestodon, and Eremotherium, being around the size of elephants, with body masses of around 4 tonnes. Ground sloths are a paraphyletic group, as living tree sloths are thought to have evolved from ground sloth ancestors.

<i>Doedicurus</i> An extinct genus of mammals belonging to the armadillo order, Cingulata

Doedicurus is an extinct genus of glyptodont from North and South America containing one species, D. clavicaudatus. Glyptodonts are a member of the family Chlamyphoridae, which also includes some modern armadillo species, and they are classified in the superorder Xenarthra alongside sloths and anteaters. Being a glyptodont, it was a rotund animal with heavy armor and a carapace. Averaging at an approximate 1,400 kg (3,100 lb), it was one of the largest glyptodonts to have ever lived. Though glyptodonts were quadrupeds, large ones like Doedicurus may have been able to stand on two legs like other xenarthrans. It notably sported a spiked tail club, which may have weighed 40 or 65 kg in life, and it may have swung this in defense against predators or in fights with other Doedicurus at speeds of perhaps 11 m/s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megalonychidae</span> Extinct family of sloths

Megalonychidae is an extinct family of sloths including the extinct Megalonyx. Megalonychids first appeared in the early Oligocene, about 35 million years (Ma) ago, in southern Argentina (Patagonia). There is, however, one possible find dating to the Eocene, about 40 Ma ago, on Seymour Island in Antarctica. They first reached North America by island-hopping across the Central American Seaway, about 9 million years ago, prior to formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 2.7 million years ago. Some megalonychid lineages increased in size as time passed. The first species of these were small and may have been partly tree-dwelling, whereas the Pliocene species were already approximately half the size of the huge Late Pleistocene Megalonyx jeffersonii from the last ice age.

<i>Glossotherium</i> Extinct genus of ground sloths

Glossotherium is an extinct genus of large mylodontid ground sloths of the subfamily Mylodontinae. It represents one of the best-known members of the family, along with Mylodon and Paramylodon. Reconstructed animals were between 3 and 4 metres long and possibly weighed up to 1,002.6–1,500 kg. The majority of finds of Glossotherium date from the Middle and Upper Pleistocene, around 300,000 to 10,000 years ago, with a few dating older, as far back Pliocene, about 3.3-3 million years ago. The range included large parts of South America, east of the Andes roughly from latitude 20 to 40 degrees south, leaving out the Amazon Basin in the north. In western South America, finds are also documented north of the equator. The animals largely inhabited the open landscapes of the Pampas and northern savanna regions.

<i>Eremotherium</i> Extinct genus of giant ground sloth

Eremotherium is an extinct genus of giant ground sloth in the family Megatheriidae. Eremotherium lived in southern North America, Central America, and northern South America from the Pliocene, around 5.3 million years ago, to the end of the Late Pleistocene, around 10,000 years ago. Eremotherium was one of the largest ground sloths, with a body size comparable to elephants, weighing around 4–6.5 tonnes and measuring about 6 metres (20 ft) long, slightly larger than its close relative Megatherium.

<i>Paramylodon</i> Extinct genus of ground sloths from North America

Paramylodon is an extinct genus of ground sloth of the family Mylodontidae endemic to North America during the Pliocene through Pleistocene epochs, living from around ~4.9 Mya–12,000 years ago.

<i>Glyptodon</i> Genus of large, heavily armored mammals

Glyptodon is a genus of glyptodont, an extinct group of large, herbivorous armadillos, that lived from the Pliocene, around 3.2 million years ago, to the early Holocene, around 11,000 years ago, in Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, and Colombia. It is one of, if not the, best known genus of glyptodont. Glyptodon has a long and storied past, being the first named extinct cingulate and the type genus of the subfamily Glyptodontinae. Fossils of Glyptodon have been recorded as early as 1814 from Pleistocene aged deposits from Uruguay, though many were incorrectly referred to the ground sloth Megatherium by early paleontologists.

<i>Catonyx</i> Extinct genus of ground sloths

Catonyx is an extinct genus of ground sloth of the family Scelidotheriidae, endemic to South America during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs. It lived from 2.5 Ma to about 10,000 years ago, existing for approximately 2.49 million years. The most recent date obtained is about 9600 B.P.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mylodontinae</span> Extinct subfamily of mammals

Mylodontinae is an extinct subfamily of ground sloths that lived from the Early Miocene to the Early Holocene epochs.

Lestobradys is an extinct genus of ground sloth, which existed in Uruguay during the Late Miocene period; Huayquerian in the South American land mammal age (SALMA). The type species is L. sprechmanni, found in the Camacho Formation of Uruguay.

<i>Ahytherium</i> Extinct genus of sloths

Ahytherium is an extinct genus of megalonychid sloth that lived during the Pleistocene of what is now Brazil. It contains a single species, A. aureum.

<i>Valgipes</i> Extinct genus of ground sloths

Valgipes is an extinct genus of scelidotheriid ground sloth, endemic to intertropical Brazil and Uruguay during the Late Pleistocene. Thought to have been a forest-dwelling browser, Valgipes is a monotypic genus with a complex and long taxonomic history, and is a close relative of Catonyx and Proscelidodon.

Archaeomylodon is an extinct genus of mylodontine ground sloths that lived during the Middle Pleistocene of what is now Argentina. It is known so far only from a single skull, which in its dimensions corresponds to those of the giant Lestodon. However, the skull differs from this one by its narrower and higher snout. In addition, the anterior canine teeth, which are usually large in many mylodonts, are greatly reduced. The find comes from the Pampa region of South America and was deposited in about 700,000 years old sediments.

Urumacotherium is an extinct genus of ground sloths of the family Mylodontidae. It lived from the Middle Miocene to the Early Pliocene of what is now Brazil, Peru and Venezuela.

Simomylodon is an extinct genus of ground sloths from the family Mylodontidae. It lived from the Late Miocene to the Middle Pliocene of what is now Bolivia and Argentina, 5.3 to 2.8 million years ago. The most important find material comes from the central Altiplano in Bolivia and includes several skulls and dentition remains. Thus, the so far documented body skeleton is the best known and most significant of a Miocene representative of the Mylodontidae. On the basis of the remains, it can be concluded that it is a rather small member of the Mylodontidae. The construction of the limbs supports ground-dwelling locomotion, but this does not exclude occasional digging or climbing. The type and only known species is Simomylodon uccasamamensis.

Bolivartherium is an extinct genus of mylodontine mylodontid sloth that lived during the Late Miocene and Late Pliocene in what is now Venezuela. Fossils have been found in the Codore and Urumaco Formations of Venezuela.

<i>Magdalenabradys</i> Extinct genus of ground sloths

Magdalenabradys is an extinct genus of mylodontid ground sloths that lived during the Middle Miocene and Early Pliocene of what is now Colombia and Venezuela. Fossils have been found in the Villavieja Formation of the Honda Group in Colombia, and the Codore and Urumaco Formations of Venezuela.

<i>Ortotherium</i> Extinct genus of ground sloth

Ortotherium is a genus of megalonychid ground sloth from the Late Miocene Ituzaingó Formation of Entre Rios Province, Argentina. Although many species were described, the only valid species of the genus is Ortotherium laticurvatum, with many species being junior synonyms. Ortotherium is known from very fragmentary material, all of which is material from the mandible and teeth. The holotype of O. laticurvatum consists of an incomplete left dentary that had been unearthed from a series of sediments known as ‘Conglomerado osifero’ in Paraná, Argentina. Argentina paleontologist Florentino Ameghino named the species in 1885, though he would go on to name four more, invalid, species of the genus. One species however, O. brevirostrum, has been reclassified as Mesopotamocnus.

References

  1. ↑ Tomassini, Rodrigo L.; Montalvo, Claudia I.; Garrone, Mariana C.; Domingo, Laura; Ferigolo, Jorge; Cruz, Laura E.; Sanz-Pérez, Dánae; Fernández-Jalvo, Yolanda; Cerda, Ignacio A. (2020-07-02). "Gregariousness in the giant sloth Lestodon (Xenarthra): multi-proxy approach of a bonebed from the Last Maximum Glacial of Argentine Pampas". Scientific Reports. 10 (1). doi:10.1038/s41598-020-67863-0. hdl: 10261/233402 . ISSN   2045-2322.
  2. ↑ Gervais, P., 1855. Recherches sur les mammifères fossils de l′Amérique méridionale, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie 3 (6) (1855), pp. 330–338.
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  5. ↑ Linares OJ. 2004. Nuevos restos del género Lestodon Gervais, 1855 (Xenarthra, Tardigrada, Mylodontidae), del Mioceno Tardío y Plioceno Temprano de Urumaco (Venezuela), con descripción de nuevas especies. [New remains of the genus Lestodon Gervais, 1855 (Xenarthra, Tardigrada, Mylodontidae), Late Miocene and Early Pliocene of Urumaco (Venezuela), with description of new species]. Paleobiologia Neotropical. 2:1–14.
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  18. 1 2 McDonald, H. Gregory (September 2012). "Evolution of the Pedolateral Foot in Ground Sloths: Patterns of Change in the Astragalus". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 19 (3): 209–215. doi:10.1007/s10914-011-9182-x. ISSN   1064-7554.
  19. 1 2 Patiño, Santiago J.; Fariña, Richard A. (2017-11-17). "Ungual phalanges analysis in Pleistocene ground sloths (Xenarthra, Folivora)". Historical Biology. 29 (8): 1065–1075. doi:10.1080/08912963.2017.1286653. ISSN   0891-2963.
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  21. ↑ Varela, Luciano; Tambusso, P. Sebastián; Patiño, Santiago J.; Di Giacomo, Mariana; Fariña, Richard A. (December 2018). "Potential Distribution of Fossil Xenarthrans in South America during the Late Pleistocene: co-Occurrence and Provincialism". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 25 (4): 539–550. doi:10.1007/s10914-017-9406-9. ISSN   1064-7554.
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  24. ↑ Varela, Luciano; Clavijo, Lucía; Tambusso, P. Sebastián; Fariña, Richard A. (October 2023). "A window into a late Pleistocene megafauna community: Stable isotopes show niche partitioning among herbivorous taxa at the Arroyo del Vizcaíno site (Uruguay)". Quaternary Science Reviews. 317: 108286. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108286.
  25. ↑ Blanco, R. Ernesto; Rinderknecht, Andrés (November 2012). "Fossil evidence of frequency range of hearing independent of body size in South American Pleistocene ground sloths (Mammalia, Xenarthra)". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 11 (8): 549–554. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2012.07.003.
  26. ↑ Richard A. Fariña et al., Arroyo del Vizcaíno, Uruguay: a fossil-rich 30-ka-old megafaunal locality with cut-marked bones, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , Published 20 November 2013, doi : 10.1098/rspb.2013.2211
  27. ↑ Suárez, Rafael; Borrero, Luis A.; Borrazzo, Karen; Ubilla, Martín; Martínez, Sergio; Perea, Daniel (2014-11-22). "Archaeological evidences are still missing: a comment on Fariña et al. Arroyo del Vizcaíno site, Uruguay". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 281 (1795): 20140449. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.0449. ISSN   0962-8452. PMC   4213605 . PMID   25297857.
  28. ↑ Holcomb, Justin A.; Mandel, Rolfe D.; Otárola-Castillo, Erik; Rademaker, Kurt; Rosencrance, Richard L.; McDonough, Katelyn N.; Miller, D. Shane; Wygal, Brian T. (2022-10-02). "Does the evidence at Arroyo del Vizcaíno (Uruguay) support the claim of human occupation 30,000 years ago?". PaleoAmerica. 8 (4): 285–299. doi:10.1080/20555563.2022.2135476. ISSN   2055-5563.
  29. ↑ Svenning, Jens-Christian; Lemoine, Rhys T.; Bergman, Juraj; Buitenwerf, Robert; Le Roux, Elizabeth; Lundgren, Erick; Mungi, Ninad; Pedersen, Rasmus Ø. (2024). "The late-Quaternary megafauna extinctions: Patterns, causes, ecological consequences and implications for ecosystem management in the Anthropocene". Cambridge Prisms: Extinction. 2. doi: 10.1017/ext.2024.4 . ISSN   2755-0958.
  30. ↑ Prates, Luciano; Perez, S. Ivan (2021-04-12). "Late Pleistocene South American megafaunal extinctions associated with rise of Fishtail points and human population". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 2175. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.2175P. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22506-4. ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   8041891 . PMID   33846353.
  31. ↑ G. Martínez, M. A. Gutiérrez, Paso Otero 5: A summary of the interdisciplinary lines of evidence for reconstructing early human occupation and paleoenvironment in the Pampean region, Argentina, in Peuplements et Préhistoire de l’Amérique, D. Vialou, Ed. (Muséum National d’ Histoire Naturelle. Departement de Prehistoire, U.M.R, Paris, 2011), pp. 271–284.
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