List of trichloroethylene-related incidents

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Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a common industrial solvent mostly used for metal degreasing. Due to its wide use in industries, there have been several incidences of waste TCE leaking into aquifers and contaminating groundwaters.

Contents

Due to their similar industrial uses, areas contaminated with mainly TCE may also be contaminated with tetrachloroethylene in smaller amounts.

Background

The first known report of TCE in groundwater was given in 1949 by two English public chemists who described two separate instances of well contamination by industrial releases of TCE. [1]

Exposure to TCE occurs mainly through contaminated drinking water. With a specific gravity greater than 1 (denser than water), trichloroethylene can be present as a dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) if sufficient quantities are spilled in the environment. Another significant source of vapor exposure in Superfund sites that had contaminated groundwater, such as the Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant, was by showering. TCE readily volatilizes out of hot water and into the air. Long, hot showers would then volatilize more TCE into the air. In a home closed tightly to conserve the cost of heating and cooling, these vapors would then recirculate. Based on available federal and state surveys, between 9% and 34% of the drinking water supply sources tested in the U.S. may have some TCE contamination, though EPA has reported that most water supplies are in compliance with the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 5 ppb. [2]

In addition, a growing concern in recent years at sites with TCE contamination in soil or groundwater has been vapor intrusion in buildings, which has resulted in indoor air exposures, such is in a recent case in the McCook Field neighborhood of Dayton, Ohio, United States. [3] Trichloroethylene has been detected in 852 Superfund sites across the United States, [4] according to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Under the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, and as amended [5] annual water quality testing is required for all public drinking water distributors. The EPA'S current guidelines for TCE are online. [6]

The EPA's table of "TCE Releases to Ground" is dated 1987 to 1993, thereby omitting one of the largest Superfund cleanup sites in the nation, the North IBW in Scottsdale, Arizona. Earlier, TCE was dumped here, and was subsequently detected in the municipal drinking water wells in 1982, prior to the study period. [7]

Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune [8] in North Carolina may be the largest TCE contamination site in the United States. Legislation could force the EPA to establish a health advisory and a national public drinking water regulation to limit trichloroethylene. [9]

The 1998 film A Civil Action dramatizes the EPA lawsuit Anne Anderson, et al., v. Cryovac, Inc. concerning trichloroethylene contamination that occurred in Woburn, Massachusetts in the 1970s and 1980s.

1980s

1990s

2000s and 2010s

Regulations

United States

Until recent years, the US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) contended that trichloroethylene had little-to-no carcinogenic potential, and was probably a co-carcinogen—that is, it acted in concert with other substances to promote the formation of tumors.

In 2023, the United States EPA determined that trichloroethylene presents an unreasonable risk of injury to human health under 52 out of 54 conditions of use, including during manufacturing, processing, mixing, recycling, vapor degreasing, as a lubricant, adhesive, sealant, cleaning product, and spray. It is dangerous from both inhalation and dermal exposure and was most strongly associated with immunosuppressive effects for acute exposure, as well as autoimmune effects for chronic exposures. [33]

As of June 1, 2023, two U.S. states (Minnesota and New York) have acted on the EPA's findings and banned trichloroethylene in all cases but research and development. [34] [35]

Proposed U.S. federal regulation

In 2001, a draft report of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) laid the groundwork for tough new standards to limit public exposure to trichloroethylene. The assessment set off a fight between the EPA and the Department of Defense (DoD), the Department of Energy, and NASA, who appealed directly to the White House. They argued that the EPA had produced junk science, its assumptions were badly flawed, and that evidence exonerating the chemical was ignored.[ citation needed ]

The DoD has about 1,400 military properties nationwide that are contaminated with trichloroethylene. Many of these sites are detailed and updated by www.cpeo.org and include a former ammunition plant in the Twin Cities area. [36] Twenty three sites in the Energy Department's nuclear weapons complex—including Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the San Francisco Bay area, and NASA centers, including the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in La Cañada Flintridge are reported to have TCE contamination.

Political appointees in the EPA sided with the Pentagon and agreed to pull back the risk assessment. In 2004, the National Academy of Sciences was given a $680,000 contract to study the matter, releasing its report in the summer of 2006. The report has raised more concerns about the health effects of TCE.

European Union

In the European Union, the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limit Values (SCOEL) recommends an exposure limit for workers exposed to trichloroethylene of 10 ppm (54.7 mg/m3) for 8-hour TWA and of 30 ppm (164.1 mg/m3) for STEL (15 minutes). [37]

Existing EU legislation aimed at protection of workers against risks to their health (including Chemical Agents Directive 98/24/EC [38] and Carcinogens Directive 2004/37/EC [39] ) currently do not impose binding minimum requirements for controlling risks to workers health during the use phase or throughout the life cycle of trichloroethylene. However, in case the ongoing discussions under the Carcinogens Directive will result in setting of a binding Occupational Exposure Limit for trichloroethylene for protection of workers; this conclusion may be revisited.

The Solvents Emissions Directive 1999/13/EC [40] and Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EC [41] impose binding minimum requirements for emissions of trichloroethylene to the environment for certain activities, including surface cleaning. However, the activities with solvent consumption below a specified threshold are not covered by these minimum requirements.

According to European regulation, the use of trichloroethylene is prohibited for individuals at a concentration greater than 0.1%. In industry, trichloroethylene should be substituted before April 21, 2016 (unless an exemption is requested before October 21, 2014) [42] by other products such as tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), methylene chloride (dichloromethane), or other hydrocarbon derivatives (ketones, alcohols, ...).

Reduced production

In recent times, there has been a substantial reduction in the production output of trichloroethylene; alternatives for use in metal degreasing abound, chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons being phased out in a large majority of industries due to the potential for irreversible health effects and the legal liability that ensues as a result.

The U.S. military has virtually eliminated its use of the chemical, purchasing only 11 gallons in 2005. [43] About 100 tons of it is used annually in the U.S. as of 2006. [44]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Trichloroethylene</span> C2HCl3, widely used industrial solvent

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a halocarbon with the formula C2HCl3, commonly used as an industrial degreasing solvent. It is a clear, colourless, non-flammable, volatile liquid with a chloroform-like pleasant mild smell and sweet taste. Its IUPAC name is trichloroethene. Trichloroethylene has been sold under a variety of trade names. Industrial abbreviations include TCE, trichlor, Trike, Tricky and tri. Under the trade names Trimar and Trilene, it was used as a volatile anesthetic and as an inhaled obstetrical analgesic. It should not be confused with the similar 1,1,1-trichloroethane, which is commonly known as chlorothene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">View-Master factory supply well</span>

The View-Master factory supply well in Beaverton, Oregon, was evaluated for public health effects by the Oregon Department of Human Services (ODHS) under a cooperative agreement with the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Workers there were potentially exposed to the industrial solvent trichloroethylene (TCE), classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a probable human carcinogen. At the factory, which closed in 2001, it had been estimated by ODHS that up to 25,000 workers may have been exposed to TCE via the factory's drinking water, which was drawn from a well on-site. However, further investigation showed that the actual number of employees who can be identified from employment records for the site is approximately half that number. In addition, the number of employees identified as having worked at the site for more than five years is likely to be less than 1,000. The site is now considered safe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian Bend Wash Area</span> Superfund cleanup site in Arizona

The Indian Bend Wash area is a Superfund cleanup site in Scottsdale and Tempe, Arizona. It was declared a Superfund site in 1983 after industrial solvents were discovered to have contaminated the groundwater in an approximately 13-square-mile (34 km2) area. It is one of the largest EPA sites in terms of volume of groundwater treated, estimated at 61.3 billion US gallons (232,000,000 m3).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Havertown Superfund</span> Superfund site in Pennsylvania

Havertown Superfund is a 13-acre polluted groundwater site in Havertown, Pennsylvania contaminated by the dumping of industrial waste by National Wood Preservers from 1947 to 1991. The state first became aware of the pollution in 1962 and initiated legal action against the owners in 1973 to force them to cleanup the site. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ranked the site the eighth worst cleanup project in the United States. The site was added to the National Priorities List in 1983 and designated as a Superfund cleanup site in the early 1990s. Remediation and monitoring efforts are ongoing and the EPA transferred control of the site to the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection in 2013.

The Camp Lejeune water contamination problem occurred at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in Jacksonville, North Carolina, from 1953 to 1987. During that time, United States Marine Corps (USMC) personnel and families at the base bathed in and ingested tap water contaminated with harmful chemicals at all concentrations from 240 to 3,400 times current safe levels. An undetermined number of former residents later developed cancer or other ailments including ALS, fatty liver disease, infertility, and Parkinson's Disease, which could be due to the contaminated drinking water. Victims claim that USMC leaders concealed knowledge of the problem and did not act properly to resolve it or notify former residents.

The Omega Chemical Corporation was a refrigerant and solvent recycling company that operated from 1976 to 1991 in Whittier, California. Due to improper waste handling and removal, the soil and groundwater beneath the property became contaminated and the area is now referred to as the Omega Chemical Superfund Site. Cleanup of the site began in 1995 with the removal of hazardous waste receptacles and a multimillion-dollar soil vaporization detoxifying system.

The FMC Corporation (Fridley Plant) is a United States Environmental Protection Agency Superfund site of 18 acres (7.3 ha) in Anoka County, Minnesota, United States, several hundred feet east of the Mississippi River. Solvents, paint sludge, and plating wastes were generated and disposed of in an on-site dump from the 1940s until 1969. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) staff sampled site surface and groundwater in the early 1980s and confirmed that ground and surface water were contaminated by industrial solvents. In the 1980s, solvents from the site were detected in the city of Minneapolis drinking water system intake that is located downgradient of where the FMC site groundwater contaminant plume enters the river.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Groundwater pollution</span> Ground released seep into groundwater

Groundwater pollution occurs when pollutants are released to the ground and make their way into groundwater. This type of water pollution can also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as contamination rather than pollution. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-site sanitation systems, landfill leachate, effluent from wastewater treatment plants, leaking sewers, petrol filling stations, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) or from over application of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution can also occur from naturally occurring contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride. Using polluted groundwater causes hazards to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease.

The Newmark Groundwater Contamination Site is a Superfund site located at the base of the San Bernardino Mountains in Southern California. The contamination was discovered in 1980 and resulted in the closing of 20 water supply wells and intensive cleanup efforts in the following years. More than 25 percent of the San Bernardino municipal water supply has been affected by the water contamination since its discovery. The source of the contamination is attributed to a World War II Army landfill and depot, used from 1942 to 1947.

The Nebraska Ordnance Plant is a former United States Army ammunition plant located approximately ½ mile south of Mead, Nebraska and 30 miles west of Omaha, Nebraska in Saunders County. It originally extended across 17,250 acres (69.8 km2) producing weapons from 1942-45 after which the Army used it as a bomb factory during the Vietnam War. Environmental investigations in the 1980's found the soil and groundwater contaminated with the explosive RDX and the degreaser trichloroethylene. In 1990, federal agencies added the site to the National Priorities List as a Superfund site. Remediation included soil excavation and water treatment, the latter of which has been ongoing since 1997. Water is contained and treated at 4 treatment plants and the known plumes are monitored at hundreds of wells. The latest wells, dug deeper into the bedrock than previously, showed RDX and TCE above desired action levels in April 2016.

Kauffman & Minteer Inc. (K&M) was an industrial transportation company that operated from 1960 to 1981 in Burlington County, New Jersey. After cleaning their trucks, they dumped the waste water into a nearby lagoon that was not properly lined. The lagoon flooded and the waste water containing chemicals, migrated over to wetlands, causing damage to vegetation and seeping into underground drinking water. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) got involved in 1989 and conducted a few remediation attempts but the extent of the damage is hard to determine as the different underground pathways of water are unpredictable. The site is currently an active superfund site that is closely monitored by the EPA.

The Rockaway Borough Well Field is a Superfund site that came into place in 1981 after the soil was suspected of being contaminated with toxic chemicals. The site is located in Rockaway, Morris County, New Jersey. It was first found to be an official Superfund site after it was discovered that tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichloroethylene (TCE) were contaminating the soil. Studies suspected that the chemicals were coming from the area of two companies in the town of Rockaway. In 1985, the residents of Rockaway were advised not to drink the tap water and the National Guard had to come and supply water supplies for the community. The town soon installed a water filter system in order to try to reduce the amount of pollution in the water. After finding that the system was not effective, the NJDEP came to the scene to investigate the soil. NJDEP found that the soil tested positive with chemicals and from there the EPA were contacted. The EPA found chemicals in different areas of the borough and found that the soil was contaminated and began to install a groundwater treatment system that functioned to purify the ground of chemicals. The system was soon pumping up to 900,000 gallons of water from the boroughs wells. Today, the pump is still functioning and has since reduced the amount of chemicals and the chance of pollution in the water to appear again. The final project to completely purify the water is still in production.

Emmell's Septic Landfill (ESL) is located at 128 Zurich Ave, Galloway Township, New Jersey and takes up about 38 acres of space. The landfill was in operation from 1967 until 1979. ESL disposed of liquid and solid waste including many chemicals such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Trichloroethene and Vinyl chloride which all had their own effect on the environment and community. These chemicals affected the groundwater required millions of dollars to reconstruct the groundwater pathways and provide clean water to residents. The landfill holds a Hazardous Ranking Score of a 50/100, qualifying for the Superfund National Priority List. In August 1999, the state acknowledged the site's contamination and held town meetings and provided research upon the site such as groundwater samples. In July 1997, a sitewide investigation was called upon by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In total the clean up was estimated to cost $5 million to fund this superfund site, and a grant of $3.9 million was given by the Federal Government under the Recovery Act Funding (Previti). Today, the project is still ongoing however, greatly improved since the landfill was discovered.

The Horseshoe Road Complex Superfund Site in Sayreville, New Jersey is a 12-acre property located near the Raritan River. The industrial site has been out of operation since the early 1980s after a fire revealed 70 drums containing silver cyanide, ethyl acetate, and acetonitrile. The drums caught the attention of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and by 1995 the Horseshoe Road Complex was on the National Priorities List. The site had three areas consisting of the Atlantic Development Corporation (ADC), Horseshoe Road Drum Dump, and Sayreville Pesticide Dump. The neighboring Atlantic Resources Corporation, the location for precious metal recovery, is addressed with the Horseshoe Road Complex (HRC) site due to the intermixing of chemical contamination. The on-site contamination is not an immediate threat to the surrounding community, although prolonged or repeated exposure to the site itself, will result in health effects. The HRC Superfund site is now in its final steps of cleanup in accordance to the EPA's plan.

Brook Industrial Park (BIP) is an industrial area occupying 4.5 acres of the Borough of Bound Brook, New Jersey, in the United States of America. It is located on the northern bank of the Raritan River. Industrial, chemical and pesticide operations began in 1971 and eventually lead to the contamination of groundwater and exposure of workers to harmful dioxins. Throughout 1980 to 1988 the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) conducted studies to determine if there were any threats being posed on the workers, community or environment by the BIP companies in their disposal of processed and stored chemicals.

The Orange Valley Regional Groundwater Superfund site is a group of wells in Orange and West Orange, two municipalities in Essex County, New Jersey, United States. The groundwater in the public wells are contaminated with the hazardous chemicals of Trichloroethylene (TCE), Dichloroethene (DCE), Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethene), 1,1-Dichloroethene (1,1-DCE), and 1,2-Dichloroethene (1,2-DCE). These chemicals pose a huge risk to the towns nearby population, as the wells are a source of public drinking water. In March 2012, the site was added to the National Priorities List (NPL) of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Superfund site list.

The Pohatcong Valley Groundwater Contamination superfund site is located in Warren County, Franklin Township, Washington Township, and Washington Borough in New Jersey. It was recognized in the 1970s but not designated into the National Priorities List until 1989. It is a contamination of the Kittany Limestone Aquifer underlying the Pohatcong Valley. This toxic site stretches across 9,800 acres of land. The chemicals that are polluting the groundwater and soil are trichloroethylene (TCE) and perchloroethylene (PCE). If someone were to be exposed to these harmful toxins for a short amount of time it can result in unconsciousness. Long term effects unfortunately include liver and kidney problems. The plans to clean up this superfund site are costing the companies involved, Pechiney Public Packaging Inc., Bristol Meyers Squibb Company, Albea Americas Inc, and Citigroup Inc, about $92 million, and the situation still has not been completely resolved.

The White Chemical Corporation Superfund site is 4.4 acres of contaminated industrial land in Newark, New Jersey, about a half mile away from Newark Airport. The Newark site operated from 1983 to July 1990, selling small amounts of chemicals. Some of the chemicals sold there were Trichloroethylene and 1-2-Dichloroethane. These chemicals were being improperly stored and leaked into the soil and groundwater. The EPA placed the property on the National Priorities List (NPL) in 1991, declaring it a Superfund site.

The Dorado Ground Water Contamination Site is one of 18 sites listed on the EPA’s National Priorities List in Puerto Rico, a territory of the United States, identified as posing a risk to human health and/or the environment because of a contamination plume in the underlying karst aquifer. Located in north-central Puerto Rico, 20 mi (32 km) to the west of the capital city, San Juan, the Dorado Ground Water Contamination site is located within the Maguayo and Dorado Urbano public water systems, and is the source of drinking water for more than 67,000 people. This site first came under scrutiny by officials in the 1980s and it was officially added to the EPA's Superfund list on September 9, 2016. The EPA is in the process of examining the precise extent and location of this contaminated groundwater plume and, at this time, the contaminants cannot be attributed to any specific source. In the wake of Hurricane Maria, the site has come under increased scrutiny because locals desperate for a source of safe drinking water have been using wells on the superfund site.

The Garfield Groundwater Contamination site is a Superfund site located in Garfield, New Jersey. The site was formally occupied by E.C Electroplating, an electroplating company that used chromic acid solution in their products. In 1983, a tank at the E.C Electroplating property malfunctioned and spilled chromic acid into the groundwater underneath the property that subsequently spread to the surrounding area. The contamination presented a health risk to Garfield residents in the area due to exposure to hexavalent chromium, a toxic form of chromium. The site was designated a Superfund site in 2011. Cleanup of the site is ongoing as of 2022.

References

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  2. ↑ "Consumer Factsheet on: Trichloroethylene" (PDF). Epa.gov. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  3. ↑ "Long-Term Study Begins" (PDF). Epa.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  4. ↑ "ToxFAQs: Trichloroethylene (TCE)". Atsdr.cdc.gov. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
  5. ↑ "Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) | Safe Drinking Water Act | US EPA". Epa.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  6. ↑ "Basic Information about Trichloroethylene in Drinking Water | Basic Information about Regulated Drinking Water Contaminants | US EPA". Water.epa.gov. Retrieved 2015-02-21.
  7. ↑ "Superfund Site Overview North Indian Bend Wash Superfund Site, Pacific Southwest, US EPA". Yosemite.epa.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  8. ↑ Archived July 17, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  9. ↑ Archived January 8, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  10. ↑ "Widely used chemical strongly linked to Parkinson's disease". www.science.org. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  11. ↑ Boyle, Christopher (October 20, 2017). "Northrop-Grumman Bethpage Underground Toxic Plume Threatens Long Island's Water Supply". News LI. Retrieved February 8, 2021.
  12. ↑ "Superfund Site Overview Middlefield-Ellis-Whisman (MEW) Study Area, Pacific Southwest, US EPA". Yosemite.epa.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  13. ↑ "Registry Finds High Cancer Numbers Around Moffett Field Superfund Site". NBC Bay Area. Retrieved 2015-02-21.
  14. ↑ "Hill's groundwater cleanup expected to last 65 years". Deseret News. 2006-12-11.
  15. ↑ "Cancer Linked to US Bases?". Deseret News. 2001-07-23.
  16. ↑ "National Priorities List (NPL) Sites". epa.gov. 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2022-03-15.
  17. ↑ "What Lies Beneath: Vets worry polluted base made them ill". AP News. 2022-02-23. Retrieved 2022-03-15.
  18. ↑ Archived May 30, 2005, at the Wayback Machine
  19. ↑ "Poisoned RCA Workers Demand Justice and Peace" (PDF). Cphan.org. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
  20. ↑ McKinney, Michael L. (2004). Outlooks: Readings for Environmental Literacy. ISBN   978-0763732806 . Retrieved 2015-02-21– via Google Books.
  21. ↑ "ATSDR-PHA-HC-View-Master Factory Supply Well-p-toc". Atsdr.cdc.gov. 2003-10-20. Archived from the original on January 27, 2010. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  22. ↑ "Fact Sheet #1 – Lisle Groundwater Contamination Investigation". Epa.state.il.us. Archived from the original on 2013-10-06. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  23. ↑ "Superfund | Region 9 | US EPA". Epa.gov. 2009-12-16. Archived from the original on 2012-12-11. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  24. ↑ "Feds to Examine Superfund Site", John Yantis, East Valley Tribune , April 6, 2007
  25. ↑ "North Indian Bend Wash (NIBW) Superfund Site". Scottsdaleaz.gov. 2012-02-29. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  26. ↑ "N.C. neighbors aghast to learn drinking water contaminated for years". Openchannel.nbcnews.com. 2012-10-28. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
  27. ↑ "Information Summary for Stony Hill Road TCE Site in Wake County". North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. Archived from the original on 2016-07-28. Retrieved 2016-08-13.
  28. ↑ "Tuzla'daki zehir Trichloroethylene nedir? Trikloretilen İstanbul Tuzla'da 100'e yakın kişinin hastanelere akın etmesine neden olmuştu..." [What is the poison Trichloroethylene in Tuzla? Trichlorethylene (sic) caused nearly 100 people to flock to hospitals in Tuzla, Istanbul...] (in Turkish).
  29. 1 2 "Tuzla'da uçucu kimyasalları kanalizasyona boşaltmışlar" [They dumped volatile chemicals into the sewer in Tuzla] (in Turkish).
  30. ↑ "İBB Tuzla'daki Kokunun Nedenini "Kaçak Basılan Kimyasal Atık" Olarak Açıkladı" [The Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality Explained the Cause of the Smell in Tuzla as "Illegally Dumped Chemical Waste"] (in Turkish).
  31. ↑ "2017'de Tuzla'da kanalizasyona dökülen kimyasalın Parkinson'a yol açabileceği ortaya çıktı" [It was revealed that the chemical spilled into the sewer in Tuzla in 2017 could cause Parkinson's disease] (in Turkish).
  32. ↑ Katsuyama, Jana (2020-02-20). "Community meeting hastily called over McClymonds campus contamination". KTVU FOX 2. Oakland, California. Archived from the original on 2020-02-28. Retrieved 2020-02-28.
  33. ↑ US EPA, OCSPP (2020-02-12). "Final Risk Evaluation for Trichloroethylene" (PDF). www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
  34. ↑ "How Minnesota passed the country's first ban on trichloroethylene". www.pca.state.mn.us/news-and-stories. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. 28 August 2023. Archived from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023.
  35. ↑ "Minnesota Statutes". Environmental Protection, Chapter 116, Section 116.385, act No. 116.38 (also known as "White Bear Area Neighborhood Concerned Citizens Group Ban TCE Act") of 2022. Minnesota Legislature. Archived from the original on 6 September 2023.
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  38. ↑ "Council Directive 98/24/EC" (PDF). Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
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  44. ↑ Ralph Vartabedian (2006-03-29). "How Environmentalists Lost the Battle Over TCE". Los Angeles Times. p. 5. Retrieved 2010-01-25.
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