A tsunami is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are in turn generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water from a large event.
Rogue waves are unusually large and unpredictable surface waves that can be extremely dangerous to ships and isolated structures such as lighthouses. They are distinct from tsunamis, which are often almost unnoticeable in deep waters and are caused by the displacement of water due to other phenomena. A rogue wave at the shore is sometimes called a sneaker wave.
MV Derbyshire was a British ore-bulk-oil combination carrier built in 1976 by Swan Hunter, as the last in the series of the Bridge-class sextet. She was registered at Liverpool and owned by Bibby Line.
USS Ramapo (AO-12), was a Patoka-class replenishment oiler. It was built under U.S. Shipping Board contract, was laid down on 16 January 1919 by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia; launched on 11 September 1919; and commissioned on 15 November 1919.
The 2000 Pacific hurricane season was an above-average Pacific hurricane season, although most of the storms were weak and short-lived. There were few notable storms this year. Tropical storms Miriam, Norman, and Rosa all made landfall in Mexico with minimal impact. Hurricane Daniel briefly threatened the U.S. state of Hawaii while weakening. Hurricane Carlotta was the strongest storm of the year and the second-strongest June hurricane in recorded history. Carlotta killed 18 people when it sank a freighter. Overall, the season was significantly more active than the previous season, with 19 tropical storms. In addition, six hurricanes developed. Furthermore, there were total of two major hurricanes.
The 1995 Pacific hurricane season was the least active Pacific hurricane season since 1979, and marked the beginning of a multi-decade period of low activity in the basin. Of the eleven tropical cyclones that formed during the season, four affected land, with the most notable storm of the season being Hurricane Ismael, which killed at least 116 people in Mexico. The strongest hurricane in the season was Hurricane Juliette, which reached peak winds of 150 mph (240 km/h), but did not significantly affect land. Hurricane Adolph was an early-season Category 4 hurricane. Hurricane Henriette brushed the Baja California Peninsula in early September.
The 1985 Pacific hurricane season is the third-most active Pacific hurricane season on record. It officially started on May 15, 1985, in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, 1985, in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1985. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. At the time, the 1985 season was the most active on record in the eastern north Pacific, with 28 tropical cyclones forming. Of those, 24 were named, 13 reached hurricane intensity, and 8 became major hurricanes by attaining Category 3 status or higher on the Saffir–Simpson scale. At that time, the 24 named storms was a record; however, this record was broken seven years later in 1992, and was therefore recognized as the second busiest season within the basin, until it was surpassed exactly thirty years later by the 2015 season.
The 1983 Pacific hurricane season was the longest season ever recorded at that time. It was a very active Pacific hurricane season. The season started on May 15, 1983 in the eastern Pacific, and on June 1, 1983 in the central Pacific, and lasted until November 30, 1983. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean. During the 1983 season, there were 20 named storms, which was slightly less than the previous season. Furthermore, twelve of those storms became hurricanes. And eight of the storms reached major hurricane status, or Category 3 or higher on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale (SSHWS). The decaying 1982–83 El Niño event likely contributed to this level of activity. That same El Niño influenced a very quiet Atlantic hurricane season.
MS München was a German LASH carrier of the Hapag-Lloyd line that sank with all 28 hands for unknown reasons in a severe North Atlantic storm in December 1978. The most accepted theory is that one or more rogue waves hit München and damaged her, so that she drifted for 33 hours with a list of 50 degrees without electricity or propulsion.
The 2007 Pacific hurricane season was a well below-average Pacific hurricane season, featuring only one major hurricane. The season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and on June 1 in the central Pacific, and ended on November 30; these dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the region. The first tropical cyclone of the season, Alvin, developed on May 27, while the final system of the year, Kiko, dissipated on October 23. Due to unusually strong wind shear, activity fell short of the long-term average, with a total of 11 named storms, 4 hurricanes, and 1 major hurricane. At the time, 2007 featured the second-lowest value of the Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) index since reliable records began in 1971. Two tropical cyclones – Cosme and Flossie – crossed into the central Pacific basin during the year, activity below the average of 4 to 5 systems.
Hurricane Felix caused severe beach erosion along the East Coast of the United States in August 1995. The seventh tropical cyclone, sixth named storm, and third hurricane of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season, Felix was also the strongest hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean since Category 5 Hurricane Andrew in 1992. It developed from a tropical wave in the eastern Atlantic Ocean on August 8, and slowly intensified, reaching hurricane status on August 11. Under favorable conditions, Felix began to rapidly deepen while curving northwestward. Late on August 12, Felix peaked as a low-end Category 4 hurricane. However, it soon weakened rapidly to a Category 1 hurricane. Less than three days later, Felix passed only 75 mi (120 km) southeast of Bermuda. Although it also posed a threat to the East Coast of the United States, Felix curved northward and then east-northeastward while remaining offshore, thereby avoiding landfall. Felix briefly threatened Bermuda again, but weakened to a tropical storm and turned back to the northeast on August 20. It accelerated east-northeastward, and passed a short distance offshore of Newfoundland, where Felix transitioned into an extratropical storm on August 22.
In physical oceanography, the significant wave height (SWH, HTSGW or Hs) is defined traditionally as the mean wave height (trough to crest) of the highest third of the waves (H1/3). It is usually defined as four times the standard deviation of the surface elevation – or equivalently as four times the square root of the zeroth-order moment (area) of the wave spectrum. The symbol Hm0 is usually used for that latter definition. The significant wave height (Hs) may thus refer to Hm0 or H1/3; the difference in magnitude between the two definitions is only a few percent. SWH is used to characterize sea state, including winds and swell.
Hurricane Emilia was, at the time, the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the Central Pacific Ocean, and the second of such to be classified as a Category 5 hurricane – the highest rating on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. However, hurricanes Gilma later that year, Ioke in 2006, and Walaka in 2018 later reached lower barometric pressures in the Central Pacific. In addition, Emilia was the first Category 5 Pacific hurricane since Hurricane Ava in 1973. The fifth named storm and the first of three Category 5 hurricanes of the 1994 hurricane season, Emilia developed from an area of low pressure southeast of Hawaii on July 16. Tracking westward, the initial tropical depression intensified into a tropical storm several hours after tropical cyclogenesis. Subsequently, Emilia entered the Central Pacific Ocean and moved into the area of responsibility of the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC).
Hurricane Fernanda was the first significant hurricane threat to Hawaii since Hurricane Iniki struck in September 1992. The sixth named storm and third major hurricane of the 1993 Pacific hurricane season, Fernanda developed on August 9 off the coast of Mexico from a tropical wave. Throughout its life, it was a large system, and the hurricane reached peak winds of 145 mph (233 km/h). After weakening slightly, Fernanda restrengthened and was expected to move across the Hawaiian Islands. Instead, the hurricane slowed its forward motion and turned away from the state, although it still produced high waves along the eastern shore of the islands. Several homes were damaged, and the surf damaged coastal roads. The storm also contributed to rainfall across the state, and minor flooding occurred in Kauai. Fernanda became extratropical on August 19, and after turning to the northeast became absorbed by a cold front.
Hurricane Estelle was a powerful tropical cyclone that caused minor damage and two deaths in Hawaii in July 1986. Estelle was the sixth tropical cyclone, fifth named storm, third hurricane, and first major hurricane of the above-average 1986 Pacific hurricane season. It formed as a tropical depression formed well southwest of the Baja California Peninsula on July 16, and strengthened into a tropical storm within 24 hours. Located within a favorable environment, Estelle intensified into a hurricane on July 18. It attained major hurricane status two days later. After peaking in intensity at Category 4 strength, Estelle slowly weakened. By July 24, Estelle was no longer a hurricane while passing south of Hawaii. It completely dissipated on July 26 after further deteriorating to a tropical depression. The arrival of the hurricane prompted a hurricane watch for Hawaii, and 200 people evacuated from their homes. Hurricane Estelle produced high waves offshore Hawaii, causing $2 million in damage and two deaths. The remnants of the storm also produced intermittent showers across the state, though there was no major damage.
Hurricane Ignacio was a Pacific hurricane that threatened Hawaii during July 1985, but ultimately had little impact on the island chain. Ignacio was the eleventh tropical cyclone, ninth named storm, and third hurricane and major hurricane of the very active 1985 Pacific hurricane season. A tropical depression formed on July 21 far from land. It became Tropical Storm Ignacio later that day. Ignacio then rapidly intensified and peaked with 130 mph (215 km/h) winds on July 24. Ignacio weakened quickly, though it briefly leveled off in intensity as a Category 2 hurricane. Ignacio was downgraded into a tropical storm on July 26 while passing south of Hawaii. Continuing to weaken, Ignacio dissipated on July 27. A hurricane watch was briefly issued for the Hawaiian Islands even though the watch was dropped when Ignacio weakened. However, Ignacio still brought high waves and light rainfall to the islands. A few roads were closed, but otherwise, damage was minimal.
Hurricane Gil was the first of several tropical cyclones to affect Hawaii during the 1983 Pacific hurricane season. The seventh named storm and third hurricane of the annual season, Gil originated from a tropical depression that developed near Clipperton Island on July 23. Steadily intensifying, it attained tropical storm status six hours later and was upgraded to a hurricane on July 26. After attaining peak intensity on July 27, Gil encountered cooler sea surface temperatures and began to weaken. Moving west-northwest, the weakening system also accelerated and on July 31, was downgraded to a tropical depression. However, Gil began to re-intensify on August 1, becoming a tropical storm again later that day. Initially expected to veer north of Hawaii, it continued west-northwest and began to approach the Hawaiian group on August 3. While passing through the island group, Gil reached its secondary peak intensity. Subsequently, Gil began to weaken once again as it threatened the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. After passing through the islands, Gil was downgraded to a tropical depression on August 5. Several hours later, the storm dissipated. The remnants of the storm moved into the West Pacific late on August 6 and were last noted the next morning while passing south of Midway Island.
Hurricane Marie is tied as the seventh-most intense Pacific hurricane on record, attaining a barometric pressure of 918 mbar in August 2014. The fourteenth named storm, ninth hurricane, and sixth major hurricane of the season, Marie began as a tropical wave that emerged off the west coast of Africa over the Atlantic Ocean on August 10. Some organization of shower and thunderstorm activity initially took place, but dry air soon impinged upon the system and imparted weakening. The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic and Caribbean for several days. On August 19, an area of low pressure consolidated within the wave west of Central America. With favorable atmospheric conditions, convective activity and banding features increased around the system and by August 22, the system acquired enough organization to be classified as Tropical Depression Thirteen-E while situated about 370 mi (595 km) south-southeast of Acapulco, Mexico. Development was initially fast-paced, as the depression acquired tropical storm-force winds within six hours of formation and hurricane-force by August 23. However, due to some vertical wind shear its intensification rate stalled, and for a time it remained a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale.
The 2020 Pacific hurricane season was a near average Pacific hurricane season in terms of named storms, featuring 17, but well below average season for hurricanes and major hurricanes, with only 4 hurricanes and 3 major hurricanes forming. Additionally, no tropical cyclones formed in the Central Pacific basin for the first time since 2017. The season officially began on May 15 in the East Pacific Ocean, and on June 1 in the Central Pacific (from 140°W to the International Date Line, north of the equator; they both ended on November 30. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the respective regions. However, the formation of tropical cyclones is possible at any time of the year, as illustrated in 2020 by the formation of the season's first system, Tropical Depression One-E, on April 25. This was the earliest formation of a tropical cyclone on record in the eastern Pacific basin proper. The final system of the season was Tropical Storm Polo, which dissipated on November 19.
