Mamushi | |
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Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Reptilia |
Order: | Squamata |
Suborder: | Serpentes |
Family: | Viperidae |
Genus: | Gloydius |
Species: | G. blomhoffii |
Binomial name | |
Gloydius blomhoffii (H. Boie, 1826) | |
Synonyms | |
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Gloydius blomhoffii, commonly known as the mamushi, [3] Japanese moccasin, Japanese pit viper, Qichun snake, Salmusa or Japanese mamushi, [4] is a venomous pit viper species found in Japan. It was once considered to have 4 subspecies, but it is now considered monotypic. [5]
This species, along with the yamakagashi ( Rhabdophis tigrinus ) and the Okinawan habu ( Protobothrops flavoviridis ), are the most venomous snakes in Japan. [6] Every year, 2000–3000 people in Japan are bitten by a mamushi. Bitten victims typically require one week of treatment in a hospital. Severe bites require intensive care, and approximately 10 victims die annually. [7] [8]
The specific name, blomhoffii, is in honor of Jan Cock Blomhoff, who was director of the Dutch trading colony in Nagasaki, Japan from 1817 to 1824. [9]
The average length of mature individuals is 45–81 cm (17+3⁄4-31+7⁄8 inches); the longest specimen ever recorded had a length of 91 cm (36 in). [3]
The body pattern consists of a pale gray, reddish-brown, or yellow-brown background, overlaid with a series of irregularly-shaped lateral blotches. These blotches are bordered with black and often have lighter centers. The head is dark brown or black, with beige or pale-gray sides. [3]
The common name in English is mamushi, [3] or Japanese mamushi. [4] The common name in Japanese is mamushi (蝮). In Korea, it is known as Korean : 살무사; RR : salmusa or Korean : 살모사; RR : salmosa. In China, it is known as the Qichun snake (七寸子) or soil snake/viper (土巴蛇、土蝮蛇、土夫蛇、土公蛇).
It is found in Japan. According to Gloyd and Conant, there is no evidence to support claims that this species occurs in the Ryukyu Islands. [10] The type locality given is "Japan". [2]
It occurs in a range of habitats, including swamps, marshes, meadows, open woodland, rocky hillsides, and montane rock outcroppings. [3]
It is typically an ambush predator that uses its excellent camouflage to hide itself in vegetation or leaf litter. It hunts and eats mainly rodents, but also small birds, lizards, and insects. It is often found in and around farmland due to the associated rodent populations. [3]
The venom of this species varies very little in Japan in terms of both its potency and its effects. [11] According to Yoshimitsu (2005), this species and the Okinawan habu (Protobothrops flavoviridis), another pit viper, are the most venomous snakes in Japan. [6] The venom's lethality as measured by LD50 in mice following intraperitoneal injection is in the range 0.3 mg/kg [12] to 1.22 mg/kg. [13] The venom mostly contains haemolytic toxins, but it also has two neurotoxins—an alpha-toxin that is a post-synaptic inhibitor and a beta-toxin that is a pre-synaptic inhibitor. [13] Because the beta-toxin acts pre-synaptically, its effects cannot be blocked or treated by anticholinesterases. [13] The venom contains an anticoagulant, mamushi L-amino-acid oxidase (M-LAO). [14] It also contains the peptide ablomin which is highly similar in amino acid sequence to that of the venom, helothermine, of the Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum). [15]
There is an effective antivenom manufactured in both Japan and China. [11] Its effectiveness is increased when co-administered with a serine protease inhibitor such as FOY (see, e.g. Camostat). [16] In common with many other venomous snakes, the mamushi is highly resistant to its own venom because of various neutralising factors present in its sera including phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitors; these and other inhibitors are the target of antivenom development. [17]
Every year, 2000-3000 people in Japan are bitten by mamushi, severe bites require intensive care, and approximately 10 victims die. [7] There have been case reports of kidney failure, [18] visual disturbances, [19] palsy, and miscarriage in pregnant women. [20]
In one study in Japan, mamushi bite victims required a median duration of 7 days of hospital treatment followed by a median of 31 days of out-patient treatment; the time to achieve a full recovery was even longer, taking up to several months. [8] The treatment protocol involved incision of the wound for exclusion of the venom, and injection of mamushi antivenom. [8]
This species is similar to the cottonmouths and copperheads ( Agkistrodon sp.) of the Americas, and it was long considered part of the same group (see synonymy). [2]
The king cobra is a venomous snake endemic to Asia. The sole member of the genus Ophiophagus, it is not taxonomically a true cobra, despite its common name and some resemblance. With an average length of 3.18 to 4 m and a record length of 5.85 m (19.2 ft), it is the world's longest venomous snake. The species has diversified colouration across habitats, from black with white stripes to unbroken brownish grey. The king cobra is widely distributed albeit not commonly seen, with a range spanning from the Indian Subcontinent through Southeastern Asia to Southern China. It preys chiefly on other snakes, including those of its own kind. This is the only ophidian that constructs an above-ground nest for its eggs, which are purposefully and meticulously gathered and protected by the female throughout the incubation period.
The eastern copperhead, also known simply as the copperhead, is a species of venomous snake, a pit viper, endemic to eastern North America; it is a member of the subfamily Crotalinae in the family Viperidae.
Mambas are fast-moving, highly venomous snakes of the genus Dendroaspis in the family Elapidae. Four extant species are recognised currently; three of those four species are essentially arboreal and green in colour, whereas the black mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis, is largely terrestrial and generally brown or grey in colour. All are native to various regions in sub-Saharan Africa and all are feared throughout their ranges, especially the black mamba. In Africa there are many legends and stories about mambas.
Hemotoxins, haemotoxins or hematotoxins are toxins that destroy red blood cells, disrupt blood clotting, and/or cause organ degeneration and generalized tissue damage. The term hemotoxin is to some degree a misnomer since toxins that damage the blood also damage other tissues. Injury from a hemotoxic agent is often very painful and can cause permanent damage and in severe cases death. Loss of an affected limb is possible even with prompt treatment.
A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake. A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs. Sometimes venom injection from the bite may occur. This may result in redness, swelling, and severe pain at the area, which may take up to an hour to appear. Vomiting, blurred vision, tingling of the limbs, and sweating may result. Most bites are on the hands, arms, or legs. Fear following a bite is common with symptoms of a racing heart and feeling faint. The venom may cause bleeding, kidney failure, a severe allergic reaction, tissue death around the bite, or breathing problems. Bites may result in the loss of a limb or other chronic problems or even death.
Gloydius is a genus of venomous pitvipers endemic to Asia, also known as Asian moccasins or Asian ground pit vipers. Named after American herpetologist Howard K. Gloyd, this genus is very similar to the North American genus Agkistrodon. 24 species are currently recognized.
Snake venom is a highly toxic saliva containing zootoxins that facilitates in the immobilization and digestion of prey. This also provides defense against threats. Snake venom is injected by unique fangs during a bite, whereas some species are also able to spit venom.
Gloydius himalayanus also known as the Himalayan pit viper or the Himalayan viper is a venomous pitviper species found along the southern slopes of the Himalayas in Pakistan, India and Nepal. No subspecies are currently recognized. Himalayan pit vipers have been found up to 4900m above sea level, which makes it the highest living snake ever found.
Deinagkistrodon is a monotypic genus created for the venomous pit viper species, Deinagkistrodon acutus, which is endemic to Southeast Asia. No subspecies are currently recognized.
Protobothrops is a genus of venomous pit vipers found in Asia.
Daboia palaestinae, also known as the Palestine viper, is a viper species endemic to the Levant. Like all vipers, it is venomous. It is considered a leading cause of snakebite within its range. No subspecies are currently recognized.
Gloydius saxatilis is a venomous pitviper species endemic to Russia, China and the Korean Peninsula. No subspecies are currently recognized.
Ovophis okinavensis, commonly known as the hime habu (ヒメハブ), Ryukyu Island pit viper, and the Okinawan pitviper, is a venomous pitviper species found in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan. No subspecies are currently recognized.
Gloydius brevicauda is a venomous pitviper species endemic to China and the Korean Peninsula.
Gloydius tsushimaensis, or the Tsushima Island pitviper, is a species of venomous snake in the family Viperidae. The species is endemic to Tsushima Island in Japan.
Ablomin is a toxin present in the venom of the Japanese Mamushi snake, which blocks L-type voltage-gated calcium channels.
Latisemin is a cysteine-rich secretory protein that can be isolated from the venom of the Black-banded sea krait, a sea snake indigenous to the warmer waters of the western Pacific Ocean. It is a toxin that inhibits cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels and blocks L-type calcium channels, thereby reducing smooth muscle contraction.
Cysteine-rich secretory proteins, often abbreviated as CRISPs, are a group of glycoproteins. They are a subgroup of the CRISP, antigen 5 and Pr-1 (CAP) protein superfamily and also contain a domain related to the ShK toxins. They are substantially implicated in the functioning of the mammalian reproductive system. CRISPs are also found in a variety of snake venoms where they inhibit both smooth muscle contraction and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels.