Mark Z. Jacobson

Last updated

Mark Jacobson
Mark Z. Jacobson.jpg
Born
Mark Zachary Jacobson

1965 (age 58–59)
Alma mater Stanford University (BA, BS, MS)
University of California, Los Angeles (MS, PhD)
Scientific career
Institutions University of California, Los Angeles
Stanford University
Thesis Developing, coupling, and applying a gas, aerosol, transport, and radiation model to study urban and regional air pollution  (1994)
Doctoral advisor Richard P. Turco
Website Official website

Mark Zachary Jacobson (born 1965) is a professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere/Energy Program. [1] He is also a co-founder of the non-profit, Solutions Project.

Contents

Overview

Jacobson pursued "better understanding air pollution and global warming problems and developing large-scale clean, renewable energy solutions to them". [2] He has developed computer models [3] to study the effects of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass burning on air pollution, weather, and climate. With these models, Jacobson examined the impacts of anthropogenic particles (black carbon and brown carbon) on health and climate. He presented such particles as the second-leading cause of global warming after carbon dioxide. [4] Due to their strong health impacts and their short time in the air, he has also hypothesized that reducing their emissions may improve people's health and rapidly slow down global warming. [5]

In a 2009 Scientific American paper, Jacobson and Mark Delucchi proposed that the world should move to 100% clean, renewable energy, namely wind, water, and solar power, across all energy sectors. [6] He discussed and promoted [7] [8] [9] the conversion of worldwide energy infrastructure to "100% wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) for all purposes" [10] in many interviews [11] Jacobson's 2015 study on transitioning the 50 states to WWS was cited as the scientific basis in House Resolution 540 (2015) [12] and in the 2015 New York Senate Bill S5527 on renewable energy [13] The Green New Deal appears compatible with Jacobson's scholarship. [14] In 2023, Jacobson was selected by Worth Magazine as one of "the 100 people who have made the most significant impact on the world this year." [15] [16] Based on citations to published papers, Jacobson is ranked the #1 most impactful scientist in the world in the field of Meteorology & Atmospheric Sciences among those first publishing after 1985 and #6 in the field of Energy among those first publishing after 1980. [17]

Jacobson's clean energy solutions exclude nuclear power, carbon capture, and bioenergy, [18] prompting a pushback by proponents of these technologies in the form of peer-reviewed letters and journal papers [19] [20] He has published peer-reviewed responses to these critics. [21] [22] A controversy developed in September 2017 when Jacobson sued the journal and one author of a critique for $10M, for defamation. [23] He withdrew his lawsuit five months later, [24] [25] [26] and was ordered to pay defendants more than $500,000 in legal fees. [27] In June, 2022, the California Labor Commission ordered Stanford University to pay Jacobson's own legal fees and reserved judgment on the remaining fees Jacobson paid in the defamation case because "defending his reputation" was necessary for his job. [27] Stanford has appealed. [27]

Jacobson has built his own net-zero home to run on renewable energy. [28] He was also an expert witness in Held v. Montana , the first climate trial in U.S. history. [29]

Research

Jacobson has published research on the role of black carbon and other aerosol chemical components on global and regional climates. [30] [31]

Jacobson advocates a speedy transition to 100% renewable energy in order to limit climate change, air pollution damage, and energy security issues. Jacobson co-founded the non-profit Solutions Project in 2011 along with Marco Krapels, Mark Ruffalo, and Josh Fox. The Solutions Project was started to combine science, business, and culture in an effort to educate the public and policymakers about the ability U.S. states and communities to switch to a "100% renewable world".

Soot and aerosol

Jacobson, as a PhD student at UCLA under Richard P. Turco, began computer model development in 1990 with the development of algorithms for what is now called GATOR-GCMOM (Gas, Aerosol, Transport, Radiation, General Circulation, Mesoscale, and Ocean Model). [3] This model simulates air pollution, weather, and climate from the local to global scale. Zhang (2008, pp. 2901, 2902) calls Jacobson's model "the first fully-coupled online model in the history that accounts for all major feedbacks among major atmospheric processes based on first principles." [32]

Several of the individual computer code solvers Jacobson developed for GATOR-GCMOM include the gas and aqueous chemistry ordinary differential equations solvers SMVGEAR [33] and SMVGEAR II, [34] [35] alongside a slew of other related and different modules, [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [ excessive citations ] The GATOR-GCMOM model has incorporated these processes and has evolved over several decades. [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [ excessive citations ]

One of the most important fields of research that Jacobson has added to, with the aid of GATOR-GCMOM, is re-defining the range of values on exactly how much diffuse tropospheric black carbon from fossil fuel, biofuel, and biomass burning affects the climate. Unlike greenhouse gases, black carbon absorbs solar radiation. It then converts the solar energy to heat, which is re-emitted to the atmosphere. Without such absorption, much of the sunlight would potentially reflect back out to space since it would have struck a more reflective surface. Therefore, as a whole, soot affects the planets albedo, a unit of reflectance. On the other hand, greenhouse gases warm the atmosphere by trapping thermal-infrared heat radiation that is emitted by the surface of the Earth. [50] [52]

Jacobson found that, as soot particles in the air age, they grow larger due to condensation by gases and collision/coalescence with other particles. He further found that when a soot particle obtained such a coating, more sunlight enters the particles, bounces around, and eventually gets absorbed by the black carbon. On a global scale, this may result in twice the heating by black carbon as uncoated particles. Upon detailed calculations, he concluded that black carbon may be the second-leading cause of global warming in terms of radiative forcing. [53] Jacobson further found that soot from diesel engines, coal-fired power plants and burning wood is a "major cause of the rapid melting of the Arctic's sea ice.

Jacobson's refinement to the warming impacts of soot and his conclusion that black carbon may be the second leading cause of global warming in terms of radiative forcing was affirmed in the comprehensive review of Bond et al. (2013). [54] For this body of work, he received the Henry G. Houghton Award [30] from the American Meteorological Society in 2005 and the American Geophysical Union Ascent Award in 2013. Based on citations to his papers published in scientific journals, Jacobson is ranked the #1 most impactful scientist in the world in the field of Meteorology & Atmospheric Sciences among those first publishing after 1985 and #12 among those publishing after 1788; in the field of Energy, he is ranked #6 among those first publishing after 1980 and #16 among those publishing after 1788. [17]

Jacobson has also independently modeled and corroborated the work of World Health Organization researchers, who likewise estimate that soot/particulate matter produced from the burning of fossil fuels and biofuels may cause over 1.5 million premature deaths each year from diseases such as respiratory illness, heart disease and asthma. These deaths occur mostly in the developing world where wood, animal dung, kerosene, and coal are used for cooking. [50]

Because of the short atmospheric lifetime of black carbon, in 2002 Jacobson concluded that controlling soot is the fastest way to begin to control global warming and that it will likewise improve human health. [55] However, he cautioned that controlling carbon dioxide, the leading cause of global warming, was imperative for stopping warming.

100% renewable energy

Jacobson has published papers about transitioning to 100% renewable energy systems, including the grid integration of renewable energy. He has concluded that wind, water, and solar (WWS) power can be scaled up in cost-effective ways to fulfill world energy demands in all energy sectors, In 2009 Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi published "A Plan to Power 100 Percent of the Planet with Renewables" in Scientific American . [6] The article addressed several issues related to transitioning to 100% WWS, such as the energy required in a 100% electric world, the worldwide spatial footprint of wind farms, the availability of scarce materials needed to manufacture new systems and the ability to produce reliable energy on demand. Jacobson has updated and expanded this 2009 paper as the years progress, including a two-part article in the journal Energy Policy in 2010. [56] Jacobson and his colleague estimated that 3.8 million wind turbines of 5-Megawatt (MW) size, 49,000 300-MW concentrated solar power plants, 40,000 300-MW solar PV power plants, 1.7 billion 3-kW rooftop PV systems, 5350 100-MW geothermal power plants, and some 270 new 1300-MW hydroelectric power plants would be needed. All of which would require approximately 1% of the world's land to be achieved.

Jacobson and his colleagues then published papers on transitioning three states to 100% renewable/WWS energy by 2050. [57] [58] [59] In 2015, Jacobson was the lead author of two peer reviewed papers, one of which examined the feasibility of transitioning each of the 50 United States to a 100% energy system, powered exclusively by wind, water and sunlight (WWS), and the other that provided one proposed method to solve the grid reliability problem with high shares of intermittent sources. [60] In 2016 the editorial board of PNAS selected the grid integration study of Jacobson and his co-workers as best paper in the category "Applied Biological, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences" and awarded him a Cozzarelli Prize. [61]

Jacobson has also published papers to transition 139, [62] 143, [63] and 145 countries [64] [65] as well as 54 towns [66] and cities and 74 metropolitan areas [67] to 100% WWS renewable energy for all purposes. For his work on solving large-scale air pollution and climate problems, Jacobson was awarded the Judi Friedman Lifetime Achievement award in 2018. [68] In 2021, he was named the "Visionary CleanTech Influencer of the Year" for "Visionary Individuals" at the World CleanTech Awards. [69] In 2023, he was selected as one of "the 100 people who have made the most significant impact on the world this year" by Worth Magazine. [15] [16]

Jacobson is co-founder of the non-profit The Solutions Project along with Marco Krapels, Mark Ruffalo, and Josh Fox. This organization "helps to educate the public about science-based 100% renewable energy transition roadmaps and facility a transition to a 100% renewable world". [70]

Opinion on energy systems

Like his PhD advisor Richard P. Turco, who notably coined the phrase "nuclear winter", Jacobson has taken a similar approach to calculating the hypothetical effects of nuclear wars on the climate but has further extended this into providing an analysis that intends to inform policy makers on which energy sources to support, as of 2009. [71] Jacobson's analyses suggest that "nuclear power results in up to 25 times more carbon emissions per unit energy than wind energy".

This analysis is controversial. Jacobson arrived at this conclusion of "25 times more carbon emissions than wind, per unit of energy generated" (68–180.1 g/kWh), by specifically expanding on some concepts that are highly contested. [72] [71] These include, though are not limited to, the suggestion that emissions associated with civil nuclear energy should, in the upper limit, include the risk of carbon emissions associated with the burning of cities resulting from a nuclear war aided by the expansion of nuclear energy and weapons to countries previously without them. An assumption that Jacobson's debating opponent similarly raised, during the Ted talk Does the world need nuclear energy? in 2010, with Jacobson heading the debate in the negative. [73] Jacobson assumes, at the high end (180.1 g/kWh), that 4.1 g/kWh are due to some form of nuclear induced burning that will occur once every 30 years. At the low end, 0 g/kWh are due to nuclear induced burning. Responding to a commentary on his work in the Journal Environmental Science and Technology in 2013, James Hansen has characterized Jacobson's analysis on this topic of greenhouse gas emissions, as "lack(ing) credibility" and similarly regards Jacobson's other viewpoint of extra "opportunity-cost" emissions as "dubious". With the foundation of Hansen's incredulity being based on French experience, that decarbonized ~80% of the grid in 15 years, completed 56 reactors in the 15-year period, thus raising the fact that depending on the existence of established regulator certainty & political conditions, nuclear energy facilities have been accelerated through the licensing/planning phase and have therefore rapidly decarbonizated electric grids. [74]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) regard Yale University's Warner and Heath's methodology, used to determine the Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources, as the most credible, reporting that the conceivable range of total-life-cycle nuclear power emission figures, are between 4-110 g/kWh, with the specific median value of 12 g/kWh, being deemed the strongest supported and 11 g/kWh for Wind. [75] While Jacobson's limited lifecycle figures, of 9-70 g/kWh, falls within this IPCC range. The IPCC however, does not factor in Jacobson's "opportunity cost" emissions on any energy source. The IPCC has not provided a detailed explanation for not including Jacobson's "opportunity costs". Aside from the time required for planning, financing, permitting, and constructing a power plant, for every energy source that can be analyzed, the time required and therefore Jacobson's "opportunity costs" also depends on political factors, for example hypothetical legal cases that can stall construction and other issues that can arise from site specific NIMBYISM. It is the delay/opportunity cost CO2 of emissions that are the bulk of the difference between Jacobson's overall emissions for nuclear of 68–180.1 g/kWh and the IPCC's lifecycle emissions.

Decarbonization assessments

Jacobson's 100% renewable world approach is supported by publications among at least 17 international research groups that find 100% renewables possible at low cost throughout the world. It is also supported by the Global 100RE Strategy Group, a coalition of 47 scientists supporting 100% renewable energy to solve the climate problem. His work is also consistent with results from a study out of the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which found that a 100% clean, renewable U.S. electricity grid with no combustion turbines might cost ~4.8 ¢/kWh to keep the grid stable. This is less than the cost of electricity from a new natural gas plant. His work is further supported by a 2016 publication by Mark Cooper, who has previously evaluated the economics of nuclear energy at the Vermont Law School, [76] In 2016 Cooper published, [77] a comparison of the 100% WWS roadmaps of Jacobson with deep decarbonization proposals that included nuclear power and fossil fuels with carbon capture. Cooper concluded that the 100% WWS pathway was the least cost and “Neither fossil fuels with CCS or nuclear power enters the least-cost, low-carbon portfolio.” Earlier publications, from 2011 to 2015, that analyzed, with different methodologies, various strategies to get to a global zero or low carbon economy, by circa 2050, reported that a renewables-alone approach, would be "orders of magnitude" more expensive and more difficult to achieve than other energy paths that have been assessed. [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] The more recent studies, including the NREL study, dispute these claims.

Opinions on nuclear energy

Jacobson argues that if the United States wants to reduce global warming, air pollution and energy instability, it should invest only in the best energy options, and that nuclear power is not one of them. [59]  To support his claim, Jacobson provided an analysis in 2009 that intended to inform policy makers on which energy sources are best for solving the air pollution, climate, and energy security problems the world faces. [83]  He updated this analysis in his 2020 textbook. [84] Jacobson's analyses suggest that "nuclear power results in up to 25 times more carbon emissions per unit energy than wind energy".

That analysis accounted for some emission sources not included in previous analyses, The primary emissions due to nuclear energy are called “opportunity-cost emissions.” These are the emissions from the background grid due to the long time lag between planning and operation of a nuclear plant (10 to 19 years) versus a wind or solar farm (2 to 5 years), for example. Of the total estimated emissions from nuclear in the 2009 study (68–180.1 g/kWh), 59–106 g/kWh was due to opportunity-cost emissions. Most of the rest (9-70 g/kWh) was due to lifecycle emissions, and a small amount (0-4.1 g/kWh) was due to the risk of carbon emissions associated with the burning of cities resulting from a nuclear war aided by the expansion of nuclear energy to countries previously without them, and the subsequent development of weapons in those countries. Jacobson raised this last assumption during a Ted talk Does the world need nuclear energy? in 2010, with Jacobson heading the debate in the negative. [63]

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported a range of total-life-cycle nuclear power emissions as between 4-110 g/kWh[54]  Jacobson's lifecycle emission figures of 9-70 g/kWh fall within this IPCC range. The IPCC however, did not account for "opportunity cost" emissions. The IPCC did not provide any explanation for not including such emissions. Although nuclear advocates have balked at the idea of including even a small risk of emissions[ citation needed ], even at the high end, from a potential nuclear war arising from the spread of nuclear energy, the IPCC has stated that,

"Barriers to and risks associated with an increasing use of nuclear energy include operational risks and the associated safety concerns, uranium mining risks, financial and regulatory risks, unresolved waste management issues, nuclear weapons proliferation concerns, and adverse public opinion.” [67]

In 2012, Jacobson coauthored a paper estimating the health effects of the Fukushima nuclear disaster. The paper projected approximately 180 "cancer-related morbidities" to eventually occur in the public. [76] [77] Health physicist Kathryn Higley of Oregon State University wrote in 2012, "The methods of the study were solid, and the estimates were reasonable, although there is still uncertainty around them. But given how much cancer already exists in the world, it would be very difficult to prove that anyone’s cancer was caused by the incident at Fukushima Daiichi." Burton Richter, tenured in Stanford with Jacobson, who analyzed the use of the disputed Linear no-Threshold (LNT) model in the paper, similarly stated in his critique, "It is a first rate job and uses sources of radioactivity measurements that have not been used before to get a very good picture of the geographic distribution of radiation, a very good idea". Richter also noted that "I also think there is too much editorializing about accident potential at Diablo Canyon which makes [Jacobson's] paper sound a bit like an anti-nuclear piece instead of the very good analysis that it is," and "It seems clear that considering only the electricity generated by the Fukushima plant, nuclear is much less damaging to health than coal and somewhat better that[sic] gas even after including the accident. If nuclear power had never been deployed in Japan the effects on the public would have [been] much worse." [85] [80]

Critiques of 100% renewable papers and court controversy

Jacobson's renewable energy solutions exclude nuclear power, carbon capture, and bioenergy. [18] This has resulted in pushback by some scientists. [19] 21 researchers published a critique in 2017 of Jacobson's "100% Renewable" paper of the United States. [20] Jacobson and his coauthors published a response to the critical paper [21] and also requested the journal and authors to either correct "false factual claims" of modeling error or retract the article. After both declined, Jacobson filed a lawsuit in 2017 against the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences  and Christopher Clack as the principal author of the paper for defamation. [23]  Jacobson’s critics described the lawsuit as an attack on free speech and scientific inquiry, [25] however Jacobson disagreed with this characterization. [24] Jacobson withdrew his lawsuit in February 2018, [25] [26] two days after a court hearing on the defendants’ special motion to dismiss pursuant to the D.C. Anti-SLAPP (Strategic Litigation Against Public Participation) Act. [24] Jacobson explained his rectraction as follows: "It became clear… that it is possible that there could be no end to this case for years." [24] [25] [86] In 2022, Jacobson appealed a trial court order for him to pay $428K in legal fees incurred by defendants in his lawsuit prior to his voluntary dismissal of it. [87] In February 2024, Jacobson lost the appeal and must pay defendants more than $500,000 in legal fees. [27] On June 26, 2022, the California Labor Commission ordered Stanford University to pay nearly $70,000 to Jacobson for legal expenses he incurred in the Washington D.C. case and reserved a decision on indemnifying him for his remaining expenses. [87] Stanford, which had declined to intervene on behalf of Jacobson, has appealed that ruling. [87]

Jacobson was also an expert witness on behalf of 16 youth plaintiffs in Held v. Montana , the first climate trial in U.S. history. [29] Jacobson testified that the state could transition to renewable energy. [29] The judge ruled in favor of the youth plaintiffs. [29]

Publications

Books

Selected articles

additional articles

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Causes of climate change</span> Effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent global warming

The scientific community has been investigating the causes of climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, it came to a consensus, where it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times." This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide, The dominant role in this climate change has been played by the direct emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. Indirect CO2 emissions from land use change, and the emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases play major supporting roles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global warming potential</span> Potential heat absorbed by a greenhouse gas

Global Warming Potential (GWP) is an index to measure of how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere. The GWP makes different greenhouse gases comparable with regards to their "effectiveness in causing radiative forcing". It is expressed as a multiple of the radiation that would be absorbed by the same mass of added carbon dioxide, which is taken as a reference gas. Therefore, the GWP is one for CO2. For other gases it depends on how strongly the gas absorbs infrared thermal radiation, how quickly the gas leaves the atmosphere, and the time frame being considered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stephen Schneider (scientist)</span> American climatologist (1945–2010)

Stephen Henry Schneider was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University, a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment. Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon, Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cloud feedback</span> Type of climate change feedback mechanism

Cloud feedback is a type of climate change feedback that has been difficult to quantify in contemporary climate models. It can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings. Cloud representations vary among global climate models, and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Global dimming</span> Reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching Earths surface

Global dimming is a decline in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface, a measure also known as global direct solar irradiance. It was observed soon after the first systematic measurements of solar irradiance began in the 1950s, and continued until 1980s, with an observed reduction of 4–5% per decade, even though solar activity did not vary more than the usual at the time. Instead, global dimming had been attributed to an increase in atmospheric particulate matter, predominantly sulfate aerosols, as the result of rapidly growing air pollution due to post-war industrialization. After 1980s, reductions in particulate emissions have also caused a "partial" reversal of the dimming trend, which has sometimes been described as a global brightening. This reversal is not yet complete, and it has also been globally uneven, as some of the brightening over the developed countries in the 1980s and 1990s had been counteracted by the increased dimming from the industrialization of the developing countries and the expansion of the global shipping industry, although they have also been making rapid progress in cleaning up air pollution in the recent years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">James Hansen</span> American physicist (born 1941)

James Edward Hansen is an American adjunct professor directing the Program on Climate Science, Awareness and Solutions of the Earth Institute at Columbia University. He is best known for his research in climatology, his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming, and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change. In recent years, he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of global warming, on a few occasions leading to his arrest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate sensitivity</span> Change in Earths temperature caused by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations

Climate sensitivity is a measure of how much Earth's surface will warm for a doubling in the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. In technical terms, climate sensitivity is the average change in global mean surface temperature in response to a radiative forcing, which drives a difference between Earth's incoming and outgoing energy. Climate sensitivity is a key measure in climate science, and a focus area for climate scientists, who want to understand the ultimate consequences of anthropogenic global warming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change mitigation</span> Actions to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions to limit climate change

Climate change mitigation is action to limit climate change. This action either reduces emissions of greenhouse gases or removes those gases from the atmosphere. The recent rise in global temperature is mostly due to emissions from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. There are various ways how mitigation can reduce emissions. One important way is to switch to sustainable energy sources. Other ways are to conserve energy and to increase efficiency. It is possible to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This can be done by enlarging forests, restoring wetlands and using other natural and technical processes. The name for these processes is carbon sequestration. Governments and companies have pledged to reduce emissions to prevent dangerous climate change. These pledges are in line with international negotiations to limit warming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black carbon</span> Component of fine particulate matter

Chemically, black carbon (BC) is a component of fine particulate matter. Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms. It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass, and is one of the main types of particle in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot. Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality. Because of these human health impacts, many countries have worked to reduce their emissions, making it an easy pollutant to abate in anthropogenic sources.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change</span> Current rise in Earths average temperature and its effects

In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices add to greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Low-carbon electricity</span> Power produced with lower carbon dioxide emissions

Low-carbon electricity or low-carbon power is electricity produced with substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions over the entire lifecycle than power generation using fossil fuels. The energy transition to low-carbon power is one of the most important actions required to limit climate change.

This is a list of climate change topics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">100% renewable energy</span> Practice of exclusively using easily replenished natural resources to do work

100% renewable energy is the goal of the use renewable resources for all energy. 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating, cooling and transport is motivated by climate change, pollution and other environmental issues, as well as economic and energy security concerns. Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable fossil fuels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas</span> Gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation at thermal infrared wavelengths

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. What distinguishes them from other gases is that they absorb the wavelengths of radiation that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. The Earth is warmed by sunlight, causing its surface to radiate heat, which is then mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. Without greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C (0 °F), rather than the present average of 15 °C (59 °F).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stratospheric aerosol injection</span> Putting particles in the stratosphere to reflect sunlight to limit global heating

Stratospheric aerosol injection is a proposed method of solar geoengineering to reduce global warming. This would introduce aerosols into the stratosphere to create a cooling effect via global dimming and increased albedo, which occurs naturally from volcanic winter. It appears that stratospheric aerosol injection, at a moderate intensity, could counter most changes to temperature and precipitation, take effect rapidly, have low direct implementation costs, and be reversible in its direct climatic effects. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concludes that it "is the most-researched [solar geoengineering] method, with high agreement that it could limit warming to below 1.5 °C (2.7 °F)." However, like other solar geoengineering approaches, stratospheric aerosol injection would do so imperfectly and other effects are possible, particularly if used in a suboptimal manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atmospheric methane</span> Methane in Earths atmosphere

Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth's atmosphere. The concentration of atmospheric methane is increasing due to methane emissions, and is causing climate change. Methane is one of the most potent greenhouse gases. Methane's radiative forcing (RF) of climate is direct, and it is the second largest contributor to human-caused climate forcing in the historical period. Methane is a major source of water vapour in the stratosphere through oxidation; and water vapour adds about 15% to methane's radiative forcing effect. The global warming potential (GWP) for methane is about 84 in terms of its impact over a 20-year timeframe, and 28 in terms of its impact over a 100-year timeframe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of the energy industry</span>

The environmental impact of the energy industry is significant, as energy and natural resource consumption are closely related. Producing, transporting, or consuming energy all have an environmental impact. Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia. Initially it was with the use of fire for light, heat, cooking and for safety, and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years. In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources. Scientific consensus on some of the main human activities that contribute to global warming are considered to be increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, causing a warming effect, global changes to land surface, such as deforestation, for a warming effect, increasing concentrations of aerosols, mainly for a cooling effect.

Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the environmental impacts of electricity generation. Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global warming potential of energy sources through life-cycle assessment. These are usually sources of only electrical energy but sometimes sources of heat are evaluated. The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source. The scale uses the global warming potential unit, the carbon dioxide equivalent, and the unit of electrical energy, the kilowatt hour (kWh). The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source, from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management.

Lynn Russell is a professor of atmospheric chemistry at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography a division of the University of California, San Diego in La Jolla, California.

This article documents events, research findings, scientific and technological advances, and human actions to measure, predict, mitigate, and adapt to the effects of global warming and climate change—during the year 2022.

References

  1. ↑ "Atmosphere / Energy Program | Civil and Environmental Engineering". cee.stanford.edu. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
  2. ↑ "Mark Jacobson | Civil and Environmental Engineering". cee.stanford.edu. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
  3. 1 2 Jacobson, M.Z. "History of, Processes in, and Numerical Techniques in GATOR-GCMOM" (PDF).[ self-published source? ]
  4. ↑ "Soot to Blame for Global Warming?". Wired.
  5. ↑ "Study Finds Controlling Soot May Be Fastest Method to Reduce Arctic Ice Loss and Global Warming; Second-Leading Cause of Global Warming After CO2". Green Car Congress.
  6. 1 2 Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A. (November 2009). "A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030". Scientific American. 301 (5): 58–65. Bibcode:2009SciAm.301e..58J. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1109-58. ISSN   0036-8733. PMID   19873905.
  7. ↑ "Meet the scientist who wants to save the world with just renewables". E&E News.
  8. ↑ "Mark Jacobson". MIT Energy Conference. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
  9. ↑ "An Interview with Stanford University Clean Energy Champion Mark Z. Jacobson". www.sustaineurope.com. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
  10. ↑ Kovo, Yael (February 10, 2016). "Mark Jacobson - Roadmaps for Transitioning all 50 U.S. States to Wind, Water, and Solar Power". NASA. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
  11. ↑ Fields, Joe (February 22, 2018). "Interview with Mark Z. Jacobson". Onalytica. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
  12. ↑ Grijalva, Raúl M. (December 4, 2015). "Text - H.Res.540 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives that the policies of the United States should support a transition to near zero greenhouse gas emissions, 100 percent clean renewable energy, infrastructure modernization, green jobs, full employment, a sustainable economy, fair wages, affordable energy, expanding the middle class, and ending poverty to promote national economic competitiveness and national security and for the purpose of avoiding adverse impacts of a changing climate". www.congress.gov.
  13. ↑ "NY State Senate Bill S5527". NY State Senate. October 3, 2015.
  14. ↑ Shepherd, Marshall. "The Climate Science Behind The Green New Deal - A Layperson's Explanation". Forbes.
  15. 1 2 Worth Magazine (December 5, 2023). "Worthy 100 2023".
  16. 1 2 Stanford University (February 12, 2024). "Professor Mark Jacobson honored in Worth Magazine's Worthy 100".
  17. 1 2 Ioannidis, John P.A. (November 3, 2022). "September 2022 data-update for "Updated science-wide author databases of standardized citation indicators"". Elsevier Data Repository. 5. doi:10.17632/btchxktzyw.5.
  18. 1 2 "Sustain Europe" (PDF). web.stanford.edu.
  19. 1 2 Bistline, John E.; Blanford, Geoffrey J. (July 12, 2016). "More than one arrow in the quiver: Why '100% renewables' misses the mark". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (28): E3988. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113E3988B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1603072113 . PMC   4948353 . PMID   27364013.
  20. 1 2 Clack, Christopher T. M.; Qvist, Staffan A.; Apt, Jay; Bazilian, Morgan; Brandt, Adam R.; Caldeira, Ken; Davis, Steven J.; Diakov, Victor; Handschy, Mark A.; Hines, Paul D. H.; Jaramillo, Paulina; Kammen, Daniel M.; Long, Jane C. S.; Morgan, M. Granger; Reed, Adam; Sivaram, Varun; Sweeney, James; Tynan, George R.; Victor, David G.; Weyant, John P.; Whitacre, Jay F. (June 27, 2017). "Evaluation of a proposal for reliable low-cost grid power with 100% wind, water, and solar". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (26): 6722–6727. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114.6722C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1610381114 . PMC   5495221 . PMID   28630353.
  21. 1 2 Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Frew, Bethany A. (June 27, 2017). "The United States can keep the grid stable at low cost with 100% clean, renewable energy in all sectors despite inaccurate claims". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (26): E5021–E5023. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E5021J. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1708069114 . PMC   5495290 . PMID   28630350.
  22. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Frew, Bethany A. (July 12, 2016). "Reply to Bistline and Blanford: Letter reaffirms conclusions and highlights flaws in previous research". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (28): E3989–E3990. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113E3989J. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1606802113 . PMC   4948352 . PMID   27364012.
  23. 1 2 "Jacobson v. National Academy of Sciences". climatecasechart.com. Retrieved September 1, 2023.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Tsai, Alex (March 2, 2018). "Stanford professor retracts $10 million libel suit against scientific critic, academic journal". Stanford Daily.
  25. 1 2 3 4 Hiltzik, Michael (February 23, 2018). "Column: A Stanford professor drops his ridiculous defamation lawsuit against his scientific critics". LA Times.
  26. 1 2 Mooney, Chris (February 23, 2018). "Stanford professor withdraws $10 million libel suit against journal, academic critic". Washington Post.
  27. 1 2 3 4 "Stanford prof who sued critics loses appeal against $500,000 in legal fees". Retraction Watch. February 15, 2024.
  28. ↑ "Leading Stanford climate scientist builds incredible net zero home, complete with Tesla Powerwall". October 30, 2017. Retrieved July 4, 2020.
  29. 1 2 3 4 Drew, Micah; Eggert, Amanda (August 17, 2023). "'This changes everything': Experts respond to Held v. Montana climate ruling". Montana Free Press.
  30. 1 2 "Search Past Award & Honors Recipients". American Meteorological Society.
  31. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2014). "Bitz, Ginoux, Jacobson, Nizkorodov, and Yang Receive 2013 Atmospheric Sciences Ascent Awards". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 95 (29): 266. Bibcode:2014EOSTr..95..266J. doi: 10.1002/2014EO290012 .
  32. ↑ Zhang, Y. (2008). "Online-coupled meteorology and chemistry models: history, current status, and outlook" (PDF).
  33. ↑ Z. Jacobson, Mark; Turco, Richard P. (January 1, 1994). "SMVGEAR: A sparse-matrix, vectorized gear code for atmospheric models". Atmospheric Environment. 28 (2): 273–284. Bibcode:1994AtmEn..28..273J. doi:10.1016/1352-2310(94)90102-3.
  34. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (September 1, 1995). "Computation of global photochemistry with SMVGEAR II". Atmospheric Environment. 29 (18): 2541–2546. Bibcode:1995AtmEn..29.2541J. doi: 10.1016/1352-2310(95)00194-4 .
  35. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (February 1, 1998). "Improvement of SMVGEAR II on vector and scalar machines through absolute error tolerance control". Atmospheric Environment. 32 (4): 791–796. Bibcode:1998AtmEn..32..791J. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(97)00315-4 .
  36. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Turco, Richard P.; Jensen, Eric J.; Toon, Owen B. (April 1, 1994). "Modeling coagulation among particles of different composition and size". Atmospheric Environment. 28 (7): 1327–1338. Bibcode:1994AtmEn..28.1327J. doi:10.1016/1352-2310(94)90280-1.
  37. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2002). "Analysis of aerosol interactions with numerical techniques for solving coagulation, nucleation, condensation, dissolution, and reversible chemistry among multiple size distributions". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 107 (D19): AAC 2–1–AAC 2–23. Bibcode:2002JGRD..107.4366J. doi:10.1029/2001JD002044.
  38. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Seinfeld, John H. (April 1, 2004). "Evolution of nanoparticle size and mixing state near the point of emission". Atmospheric Environment. 38 (13): 1839–1850. Bibcode:2004AtmEn..38.1839J. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.01.014.
  39. ↑ Jacobson, M. Z.; Kittelson, D. B.; Watts, W. F. (December 1, 2005). "Enhanced Coagulation Due to Evaporation and Its Effect on Nanoparticle Evolution". Environmental Science & Technology. 39 (24): 9486–9492. Bibcode:2005EnST...39.9486J. doi:10.1021/es0500299. PMID   16475326.
  40. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Tabazadeh, Azadeh; Turco, Richard P. (1996). "Simulating equilibrium within aerosols and nonequilibrium between gases and aerosols". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 101 (D4): 9079–9091. Bibcode:1996JGR...101.9079J. doi:10.1029/96JD00348.
  41. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (September 1, 1999). "Studying the effects of calcium and magnesium on size-distributed nitrate and ammonium with EQUISOLV II". Atmospheric Environment. 33 (22): 3635–3649. Bibcode:1999AtmEn..33.3635J. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00105-3 .
  42. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2005). "Studying ocean acidification with conservative, stable numerical schemes for nonequilibrium air-ocean exchange and ocean equilibrium chemistry". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 110 (D7). Bibcode:2005JGRD..110.7302J. doi: 10.1029/2004JD005220 .
  43. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (January 1, 1997). "Numerical Techniques to Solve Condensational and Dissolutional Growth Equations When Growth is Coupled to Reversible Reactions". Aerosol Science and Technology. 27 (4): 491–498. Bibcode:1997AerST..27..491J. doi:10.1080/02786829708965489.
  44. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Lu, Rong; Turco, Richard P.; Toon, Owen B. (June 1, 1996). "Development and application of a new air pollution modeling system-part I: Gas-phase simulations". Atmospheric Environment. 30 (12): 1939–1963. Bibcode:1996AtmEn..30.1939J. doi:10.1016/1352-2310(95)00139-5.
  45. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (January 1, 1997). "Development and application of a new air pollution modeling system—II. Aerosol module structure and design". Atmospheric Environment. 31 (2): 131–144. Bibcode:1997AtmEn..31..131J. doi:10.1016/1352-2310(96)00202-6.
  46. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2001). "GATOR-GCMM: A global- through urban-scale air pollution and weather forecast model: 1. Model design and treatment of subgrid soil, vegetation, roads, rooftops, water, sea ice, and snow". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 106 (D6): 5385–5401. Bibcode:2001JGR...106.5385J. doi: 10.1029/2000JD900560 .
  47. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2001). "GATOR-GCMM: 2. A study of daytime and nighttime ozone layers aloft, ozone in national parks, and weather during the SARMAP field campaign". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 106 (D6): 5403–5420. Bibcode:2001JGR...106.5403J. doi: 10.1029/2000JD900559 .
  48. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Kaufman, Yoram J.; Rudich, Yinon (2007). "Examining feedbacks of aerosols to urban climate with a model that treats 3-D clouds with aerosol inclusions". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 112 (D24). Bibcode:2007JGRD..11224205J. doi:10.1029/2007JD008922.
  49. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Streets, David G. (2009). "Influence of future anthropogenic emissions on climate, natural emissions, and air quality". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 114 (D8). Bibcode:2009JGRD..114.8118J. doi: 10.1029/2008JD011476 .
  50. 1 2 3 Jacobson, Mark Z. (2010). "Short-term effects of controlling fossil-fuel soot, biofuel soot and gases, and methane on climate, Arctic ice, and air pollution health". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 115 (D14). Bibcode:2010JGRD..11514209J. doi: 10.1029/2009JD013795 .
  51. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2014). "Effects of biomass burning on climate, accounting for heat and moisture fluxes, black and brown carbon, and cloud absorption effects". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 119 (14): 8980–9002. Bibcode:2014JGRD..119.8980J. doi:10.1002/2014JD021861. S2CID   1961014.
  52. ↑ David Perlman. Scientists say soot a key factor in warming San Francisco Chronicle, July 28, 2010.
  53. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (February 2001). "Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols". Nature. 409 (6821): 695–697. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..695J. doi:10.1038/35055518. PMID   11217854. S2CID   4423927.
  54. ↑ Bond; et al. (2013). "Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 118 (11): 5380–5552. Bibcode:2013JGRD..118.5380B. doi: 10.1002/jgrd.50171 . hdl: 2027.42/99106 .
  55. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2002). "Control of fossil-fuel particulate black carbon and organic matter, possibly the most effective method of slowing global warming". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 107 (D19): ACH 16–1–ACH 16–22. Bibcode:2002JGRD..107.4410J. doi:10.1029/2001JD001376.
  56. ↑ Nancy Folbre (March 28, 2011). "Renewing Support for Renewables". New York Times.
  57. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Howarth, Robert W.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Scobie, Stan R.; Barth, Jannette M.; Dvorak, Michael J.; Klevze, Megan; Katkhuda, Hind; Miranda, Brian; Chowdhury, Navid A.; Jones, Rick; Plano, Larsen; Ingraffea, Anthony R. (June 1, 2013). "Examining the feasibility of converting New York State's all-purpose energy infrastructure to one using wind, water, and sunlight". Energy Policy. 57: 585–601. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.02.036.
  58. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Ingraffea, Anthony R.; Howarth, Robert W.; Bazouin, Guillaume; Bridgeland, Brett; Burkart, Karl; Chang, Martin; Chowdhury, Navid; Cook, Roy; Escher, Giulia; Galka, Mike; Han, Liyang; Heavey, Christa; Hernandez, Angelica; Jacobson, Daniel F.; Jacobson, Dionna S.; Miranda, Brian; Novotny, Gavin; Pellat, Marie; Quach, Patrick; Romano, Andrea; Stewart, Daniel; Vogel, Laura; Wang, Sherry; Wang, Hara; Willman, Lindsay; Yeskoo, Tim (August 14, 2014). "A roadmap for repowering California for all purposes with wind, water, and sunlight". Energy. 73: 875–889. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.099.
  59. 1 2 Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Bazouin, Guillaume; Dvorak, Michael J.; Arghandeh, Reza; Bauer, Zack A. F.; Cotte, Ariane; de Moor, Gerrit M. T. H.; Goldner, Elissa G.; Heier, Casey; Holmes, Randall T.; Hughes, Shea A.; Jin, Lingzhi; Kapadia, Moiz; Menon, Carishma; Mullendore, Seth A.; Paris, Emily M.; Provost, Graham A.; Romano, Andrea R.; Srivastava, Chandrika; Vencill, Taylor A.; Whitney, Natasha S.; Yeskoo, Tim W. (February 1, 2016). "A 100% wind, water, sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy plan for Washington State". Renewable Energy. 86: 75–88. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2015.08.003.
  60. ↑ "Mark Jacobson interview on David Letterman October 9, 2013". AmericanShows.
  61. ↑ "PNAS Announces Six 2015 Cozzarelli Prize Recipients". News of the National Academy of Sciences. March 1, 2016. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.
  62. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Mathiesen, Brian V. (August 1, 2018). "Matching demand with supply at low cost in 139 countries among 20 world regions with 100% intermittent wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) for all purposes". Renewable Energy. 123: 236–248. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2018.02.009. S2CID   46784278.
  63. 1 2 Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Coughlin, Stephen J.; Hay, Catherine A.; Manogaran, Indu Priya; Shu, Yanbo; Krauland, Anna-Katharina von (December 20, 2019). "Impacts of Green New Deal Energy Plans on Grid Stability, Costs, Jobs, Health, and Climate in 143 Countries". One Earth. 1 (4): 449–463. Bibcode:2019AGUFMPA32A..01J. doi: 10.1016/j.oneear.2019.12.003 . S2CID   210964561.
  64. ↑ "Study finds world can switch to 100% renewable energy and earn back its investment in just 6 years". My Modern Met. August 4, 2022.
  65. ↑ Jacobson, M.Z.; von Krauland, A.-K.; Coughlin, S.J.; Dukas, E.; Nelson, A.J.H.; Palmer, F.C.; Rasmussen, K.R. (June 28, 2022). "Low-cost solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy insecurity for 145 countries". Energy & Environmental Science. 15: 3343–3359. doi:10.1039/d2ee00722c.
  66. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Cameron, Mary A.; Hennessy, Eleanor M.; Petkov, Ivalin; Meyer, Clayton B.; Gambhir, Tanvi K.; Maki, Amanda T.; Pfleeger, Katherine; Clonts, Hailey; McEvoy, Avery L.; Miccioli, Matthew L.; von Krauland, Anna-Katharina; Fang, Rebecca W.; Delucchi, Mark A. (October 1, 2018). "100% clean and renewable Wind, Water, and Sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy roadmaps for 53 towns and cities in North America". Sustainable Cities and Society. 42: 22–37. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2018.06.031. S2CID   86855462.
  67. 1 2 Jacobson, Mark Z.; von Krauland, Anna-Katharina; Burton, Zachary F.M.; Coughlin, Stephen J.; Jaeggli, Caitlin; Nelli, Daniel; Nelson, Alexander J. H.; Shu, Yanbo; Smith, Miles; Tan, Chor; Wood, Connery D.; Wood, Kelyn D. (September 20, 2020). "Transitioning All Energy in 74 Metropolitan Areas, Including 30 Megacities, to 100% Clean and Renewable Wind, Water, and Sunlight (WWS)". Energies. 13 (18): 4934. doi: 10.3390/en13184934 .
  68. ↑ "PACE to Host Forum on 100% Renewable Energy Nov. 8 – par-newhaven.org". par-newhaven.org. September 29, 2018. Retrieved November 23, 2021.
  69. ↑ "World CleanTech Awards - 2021 Edition". CleanTech Business Club.
  70. ↑ Mark Schwarz (February 26, 2014). "Stanford scientist unveils 50-state plan to transform U.S. to renewable energy". Stanford Report.
  71. 1 2 The Guardian. 2009 The carbon footprint of nuclear war
  72. ↑ Does Nuclear Energy Really Equate to Nuclear War? January 5, 2011 by Charles Barton
  73. ↑ Does the world need nuclear energy?
  74. ↑ Pushker A. Kharecha and James E. Hansen. (May 22, 2013). "Response to Comment on "Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power"" (PDF). Environ. Sci. Technol. 47 (12): 6718–6719. Bibcode:2013EnST...47.6718K. doi:10.1021/es402211m. hdl: 2060/20140017702 . PMID   23697846. S2CID   206971716.
  75. ↑ Bruckner et al. 2014: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter7.pdf Energy Systems. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
  76. 1 2 The Economics of Nuclear Reactors: Renaissance or Relapse? Vermont Law School, June 2009, p. 1 and p. 8.
  77. 1 2 Cooper, Mark (2016). "The Economic and Institutional Foundations of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change: The Political Economy of Roadmaps to a Sustainable Electricity Future". doi:10.2139/ssrn.2722880. S2CID   155402376. SSRN   2722880.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  78. ↑ "Sun, wind and drain". The Economist. July 29, 2014.
  79. ↑ Frank, Charles (May 20, 2014). "The Net Benefits of Low and No-Carbon Electricity Technologies". Brookings.
  80. 1 2 Joskow, Paul L (May 1, 2011). "Comparing the Costs of Intermittent and Dispatchable Electricity Generating Technologies". American Economic Review. 101 (3): 238–241. doi:10.1257/aer.101.3.238. hdl: 1814/18239 .
  81. ↑ Brook, Barry W. (March 2012). "Could nuclear fission energy, etc., solve the greenhouse problem? The affirmative case". Energy Policy. 42: 4–8. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.041.
  82. ↑ Loftus, Peter J.; Cohen, Armond M.; Long, Jane C. S.; Jenkins, Jesse D. (January 2015). "A critical review of global decarbonization scenarios: what do they tell us about feasibility?". WIREs Climate Change. 6 (1): 93–112. doi:10.1002/wcc.324. S2CID   4835733.
  83. ↑ "PNAS Announces Six 2015 Cozzarelli Prize Recipients". News of the National Academy of Sciences. March 1, 2016. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.
  84. ↑ "POLbook". web.stanford.edu.
  85. ↑ THE NET BENEFITS OF LOW AND NO-CARBON ELECTRICITY TECHNOLOGIES. MAY 2014, Charles Frank PDF
  86. ↑ "FAQ" (PDF). web.stanford.edu.[ self-published source? ]
  87. 1 2 3 "Stanford prof appeals order to pay $428K in legal fees after dropping defamation suit". Retraction Watch. September 9, 2022.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.