Mucor racemosus

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Mucor racemosus
Mucor racemosus sporangiophore.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Mucoromycota
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mucoraceae
Genus: Mucor
Species:
M. racemosus
Binomial name
Mucor racemosus
Bull. (1791)
Synonyms
  • Calyptromyces globosus Sumst. (1910)
  • Circinomucor sphaerosporus Arx  [ ru ] (1982)
  • Mucor dimorphosporus f. sphaerosporus Vánová (1991)
  • Mucor globosus A. Fisch. (1892)
  • Mucor globosus var. intermedius Sacc. (1913)
  • Mucor macrosporus Pišpek (1929)
  • Mucor plumbeus var. globosusZach (1935)
  • Mucor plumbeus var. levisporusZach (1936)
  • Mucor pyri M.P. English (1943)
  • Mucor sphaerosporus Hagem (1908)
  • Mucor sphaerosporus var. major Naumov  [ ru ] (1954)

Mucor racemosus is a rapidly growing, weedy mould belonging to the division Mucoromycota. [1] It is one of the earliest fungi to be grown in pure culture and was first isolated in 1886.[ citation needed ] It has a worldwide distribution and colonizes many habitats such as vegetational products, soil and houses. [2] [3] The fungus is mostly known for its ability to exhibit both filamentous and yeast-like morphologies, often referred to as dimorphism. [2] Stark differences are seen in both forms and conditions of the environment heavily affect the phases of the M. racemosus. [2] Like many fungi, it also reproduces both sexually and asexually. [2] The dimorphic capacity of this species has been proposed as an important factor in its pathogenicity and has enhanced the industrial importance. This species is considered an opportunistic pathogen, generally limited to immunocompromised individuals. [4] It also been associated with allergy and inflammations of facial sinuses. [4] Its association with allergy has made it a common fungus used in allergen medical testing. [5] [6] Industrial use of the fungus is in the production of enzymes and the manufacture of certain dairy foods. [7] [8] [9]

Contents

Morphology and taxonomy

The dimorphic form of the species mainly exists and grows vegetatively as either a filamentous hyphae (mould form) or as spherical yeast (yeast form). [2] However, the organism is best known from the mould form which is characterised by the production of asexual reproductive state consisting of tall (up to 2 cm) needle-like sporangiophores with an apical swelling enclosed by a large sporangium filled with ellipsoidal, single-celled, smooth-walled, unpigmented sporangiospores.[ citation needed ] In the laboratory, the fungus forms dark grey or light grey colonies on most common laboratory media.[ citation needed ] If subjected to anaerobic conditions, the fungus may convert to the yeast-like form. [2] Anaerobic conditions and 30% carbon dioxide presence stimulate conversion to yeast form. Likewise, cultures supplemented with Tween 80, ergosterol and supplied with 100% nitrogen also converted to yeast. [10] Conversely, increasing oxygen concentration will cause conversion of the yeast form to the mould form. [2] Like many zygomycetes, M. racemosus reproduces both sexually and asexually depending on environmental conditions. During sexual reproduction, hyphae of compatible mating types touch and fuse, ultimately giving rise to a thick-walled zygosporangium containing a single zygospore. Germination from the zygospore leads to growth of new hyphae that give rise to asexual spores of both + and - mating type. [2] Germination of these spores produces new haploid hyphae of the same mating type. [2]

Physiology and ecology

Mucor racemosus (UAMH 8346) cultured on potato dextrose agar at 25 degC for 10 days. Mucor racemosus.jpg
Mucor racemosus (UAMH 8346) cultured on potato dextrose agar at 25 °C for 10 days.

M. racemosus possesses the ability to exhibit multiple morphology (mainly, filamentous and spherical shape) to withstand various environmental stress. [11] This has given it ability to survive many conditions and it has a worldwide distribution, reported most frequently in Europe as well as Americas.[ citation needed ] In the tropics, it has been seen at higher altitudes.[ citation needed ] While the species is primarily soil-based, it has been shown to exist elsewhere such as in horse manure, plant remains, grains, vegetables and nuts. [2] Typically, it is often seen on plant-based materials such as soft fruit, fruit juice and marmalade[ citation needed ] but it has also been isolated from non-plant sources like soft camembert cheese.[ citation needed ]M. racemosus has also been isolated from the human gut microbiome of non-obese individuals. [12] It is the most common mould found in the floor dust in houses and is largely considered as an indoor mould. [3] M. racemosus is uniquely known for its ability to display multiple morphologies but most of the time, studies are made based on the dimorphic form of the species. [11] It is a facultative anaerobic zygomycote and fast-growing, conferring it ability to survive in multiple conditions/locations all over the world. [2] [11] M. racemosus possesses the ability to biosynthesize chitin and chitosan, which has been proposed as a mechanism supporting the ability of the fungus to switch between the yeast and the mould phases. [13] Genomic analysis of M. racemosus has revealed genes similar to human RAS genes, and it is proposed that these genes help with germination and dimorphism. [14] [15] Protein kinase A (PKA) genes such as pkaR are highly also expressed during dimorphic shift. [16]

Human disease

M. racemosus is a rare agent of human disease, typically only associated with opportunistic infection of immunocompromised individuals such as children, elderly and diseased patients (HIV, Ebola etc.). [11] It is an agent of Mucormycosis, a potentially life-threatening infection often involving the head airways. [4] Pulmonary, cutaneous, and gastrointestinal (GI) infections have also been observed leading to an array of clinical presentations in infected individuals. Risk factors such as diabetic ketoacidosis and neutropenia are present in most cases. [4] Treatment of M. racemosus can be difficult due to histopathologic differentiation of the fungus. [1] In addition to commonly used antifungal agents, biological compounds like Lovastatin, Aleuria aurantia lectin (AAL) and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs LR14) have been isolated and showed antimicrobial effects towards M. racemosus. [17] [18] [19] Allergies to M. racemosus have been reported to affect immunologically normal individuals from in a range of places (Netherlands, Turkey and Brazil). [20] [21] [22] Allergy to M. racemosus has been also associated with fungal rhinosinusitis, [23] rhinitis and extrinsic allergic alveolitis. [24] [25] Asthmatic patients have also shown elevated sensitization to M. racemosus. [26] Mucor racemosus-specific IgE antibody is commonly used and available for medical as well as laboratory use in allergen assay (ImmunoCAP). [5] [6]

Commercial and biotechnological use

The capacity of M. racemosus to grow as a yeast and its various abilities to manufacture biochemicals have led to its use in industry. For example, it can produce a high yield of phytase, an important industrial enzyme. [7] [8] It also has an increased extracellular protease activity, suggesting its biotechnological suitability for the production of other industrial enzymes. [7] [8] In the manufacture of sufu (fermented cheese-like soybean product common in China and Vietnam), the fungal fermentation of soybean curd (tofu) results in moulded tofu, pehtze. The final product (sufu) is obtained by maturing pehtze in a brine containing alcohol and salt for several months. [9]

It possesses the ability to adapt phenotypically to several different antibiotics after exposure to a single drug, which makes it a good model for phenotypic multidrug resistance in lower eukaryotes. It has been shown to adapt to famous antibiotics like cycloheximide, trichodermin and amphotericin B. [2] [27] Cells adapted to cycloheximide particularly have been observed to be 40-times more resistant than non-adapted cells to the drug. These adapted cells have been studied to better understand their greater efficiency of membrane transport (efflux of drugs). [28]

Mucor racemosus can biotransform lipids like 4-ene-3-one steroids and 20(S)-Protopanaxatriol into several different products, some of which have anticancer properties (as the metabolites resulted in increased intracellular calcium ion content, leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis). [29] [30] Two of the products formed from this biotransformation are two novel hydroperoxylated metabolites that have been shown to be effective against prostate cancer cells. [31] Secondary metabolites of M. racemosus do not exhibit genotoxic activity, and the species is not known to be a producer of mycotoxins. However, some secondary metabolites of the fungus have been found to have anti-inflammatory activity similar to the drug dexamethasone . [32]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mold</span> Wooly, dust-like fungal structure or substance

A mold or mould is one of the structures that certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not all fungi form molds. Some fungi form mushrooms; others grow as single cells and are called microfungi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypha</span> Long, filamentous structure in fungi and Actinobacteria

A hypha is a long, branching, filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium.

<i>Talaromyces marneffei</i> Species of fungus

Talaromyces marneffei, formerly called Penicillium marneffei, was identified in 1956. The organism is endemic to southeast Asia where it is an important cause of opportunistic infections in those with HIV/AIDS-related immunodeficiency. Incidence of T. marneffei infections has increased due to a rise in HIV infection rates in the region.

<i>Candida albicans</i> Species of fungus

Candida albicans is an opportunistic pathogenic yeast that is a common member of the human gut flora. It can also survive outside the human body. It is detected in the gastrointestinal tract and mouth in 40–60% of healthy adults. It is usually a commensal organism, but it can become pathogenic in immunocompromised individuals under a variety of conditions. It is one of the few species of the genus Candida that cause the human infection candidiasis, which results from an overgrowth of the fungus. Candidiasis is, for example, often observed in HIV-infected patients. C. albicans is the most common fungal species isolated from biofilms either formed on (permanent) implanted medical devices or on human tissue. C. albicans, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, and C. glabrata are together responsible for 50–90% of all cases of candidiasis in humans. A mortality rate of 40% has been reported for patients with systemic candidiasis due to C. albicans. By one estimate, invasive candidiasis contracted in a hospital causes 2,800 to 11,200 deaths yearly in the US. Nevertheless, these numbers may not truly reflect the true extent of damage this organism causes, given new studies indicating that C. albicans can cross the blood–brain barrier in mice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endophyte</span>

An endophyte is an endosymbiont, often a bacterium or fungus, that lives within a plant for at least part of its life cycle without causing apparent disease. Endophytes are ubiquitous and have been found in all species of plants studied to date; however, most of the endophyte/plant relationships are not well understood. Some endophytes may enhance host growth, nutrient acquisition and improve the plant's ability to tolerate abiotic stresses, such as drought and decrease biotic stresses by enhancing plant resistance to insects, pathogens and herbivores. Although endophytic bacteria and fungi are frequently studied, endophytic archaea are increasingly being considered for their role in plant growth promotion as part of the core microbiome of a plant.

<i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus fumigatus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus, and is one of the most common Aspergillus species to cause disease in individuals with an immunodeficiency.

<i>Mucor mucedo</i> Species of fungus

Mucor mucedo, commonly known as the common pinmould, is a fungal plant pathogen and member of the phylum Mucoromycota and the genus Mucor. Commonly found on soil, dung, water, plants and moist foods, Mucor mucedo is a saprotrophic fungus found world-wide with 85 known strains. It is often mistaken for Rhizopus rots on fruits due to similar mould growth shape and colour. Contrastingly, however, Mucor mucedo is found to grow on a wide range of stored grains and plants, including cucumber and tomato. Discovered in Italy in 1729 by P.A. Micheli and later noted by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in the Species Plantarum, Mucor mucedo was originally classified as Mucor vulgaris by Micheli but later classified synonymous under name Mucor mucedo. The species was redescribed as Ascophora mucedo by H.J. Tode in 1790 but this type resided in a stoloniferous habitat and was later made the type of new genus Rhizopus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fungus</span> Biological kingdom, separate from plants and animals

A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one of the traditional eukaryotic kingdoms, along with Animalia, Plantae and either Protista or Protozoa and Chromista.

Mucor indicus is among the most important members of zygomycetes fungi. This dimorphic fungus is capable of production of several valuable products. Some strains of the fungus have been isolated from the traditional Indonesian food tempeh. M. indicus is nowadays used for production of several homemade food and beverages especially in Asia. This has also been successfully used as a safe nutritional source for fish and rat. The fungus is generally regarded as safe though there are few reports claiming that this is a pathogenic fungus.

<i>Penicillium chrysogenum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium chrysogenum is a species of fungus in the genus Penicillium. It is common in temperate and subtropical regions and can be found on salted food products, but it is mostly found in indoor environments, especially in damp or water-damaged buildings. It has been recognised as a species complex that includes P. notatum, P. meleagrinum, and P. cyaneofulvum. Molecular phylogeny has established that Alexander Fleming's first discovered penicillin producing strain is of a distinct species, P. rubens, and not of P. notatum. It has rarely been reported as a cause of human disease. It is the source of several β-lactam antibiotics, most significantly penicillin. Other secondary metabolites of P. chrysogenum include roquefortine C, meleagrin, chrysogine, 6-MSA YWA1/melanin, andrastatin A, fungisporin, secalonic acids, sorbicillin, and PR-toxin.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marine fungi</span> Species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments

Marine fungi are species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments. They are not a taxonomic group, but share a common habitat. Obligate marine fungi grow exclusively in the marine habitat while wholly or sporadically submerged in sea water. Facultative marine fungi normally occupy terrestrial or freshwater habitats, but are capable of living or even sporulating in a marine habitat. About 444 species of marine fungi have been described, including seven genera and ten species of basidiomycetes, and 177 genera and 360 species of ascomycetes. The remainder of the marine fungi are chytrids and mitosporic or asexual fungi. Many species of marine fungi are known only from spores and it is likely a large number of species have yet to be discovered. In fact, it is thought that less than 1% of all marine fungal species have been described, due to difficulty in targeting marine fungal DNA and difficulties that arise in attempting to grow cultures of marine fungi. It is impracticable to culture many of these fungi, but their nature can be investigated by examining seawater samples and undertaking rDNA analysis of the fungal material found.

<i>Aspergillus versicolor</i> Species of fungus

Aspergillus versicolor is a slow-growing species of filamentous fungus commonly found in damp indoor environments and on food products. It has a characteristic musty odor associated with moldy homes and is a major producer of the hepatotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxin sterigmatocystin. Like other Aspergillus species, A. versicolor is an eye, nose, and throat irritant.

<i>Mucor plumbeus</i> Species of fungus

Mucor plumbeus is a fungus in the family Mucoraceae that is very common, abundant and distributed worldwide. Mucor plumbeus is not known to be a plant or animal pathogen; however it is able to elicit an immune response in humans by activating the complement system. This species is commonly found in various types of soils over a range of pH, although alkaline soils seem more conducive to its growth. It is also known from the roots of wheat, oat and barley. In addition, M. plumbeus is a common fungal contaminant of indoor built environments. This species shares many similarities with M. racemosus, another fungus that belongs to the family Mucoraceae which is known to cause mucormycosis. Mucor plumbeus is a common spoilage agent of cheese, apples, apple cider and yogurt.

<i>Sporobolomyces salmonicolor</i> Species of fungus

Sporobolomyces salmonicolor is a species of fungus in the subdivision Pucciniomycotina. It occurs in both a yeast state and a hyphal state, the latter formerly known as Sporidiobolus salmonicolor. It is generally considered a Biosafety Risk Group 1 fungus; however isolates of S. salmonicolor have been recovered from cerebrospinal fluid, infected skin, a nasal polyp, lymphadenitis and a case of endophthalmitis. It has also been reported in AIDS-related infections. The fungus exists predominantly in the anamorphic (asexual) state as a unicellular, haploid yeast yet this species can sometimes produce a teleomorphic (sexual) state when conjugation of compatible yeast cells occurs. The asexual form consists of a characteristic, pink, ballistosporic yeast. Ballistoconidia are borne from slender extensions of the cell known as sterigmata and are forcibly ejected into the air upon maturity. Levels of airborne yeast cells peak during the night and are abundant in areas of decaying leaves and grains. Three varieties of Sporobolomyces salmonicolor have been described; S. salmonicolor var. albus, S. salmonicolor var. fischerii, and S. salmonicolor var. salmoneus.

<i>Penicillium digitatum</i> Species of fungus

Penicillium digitatum is a mesophilic fungus found in the soil of citrus-producing areas. It is a major source of post-harvest decay in fruits and is responsible for the widespread post-harvest disease in Citrus fruit known as green rot or green mould. In nature, this necrotrophic wound pathogen grows in filaments and reproduces asexually through the production of conidiophores and conidia. However, P. digitatum can also be cultivated in the laboratory setting. Alongside its pathogenic life cycle, P. digitatum is also involved in other human, animal and plant interactions and is currently being used in the production of immunologically based mycological detection assays for the food industry.

<i>Epicoccum nigrum</i> Species of fungus

Epicoccum nigrum is a species of fungus in the phylum Ascomycota. A plant pathogen and endophyte, it is a widespread fungus which produces coloured pigments that can be used as antifungal agents against other pathogenic fungi. The fluorescent stain epicocconone is extracted from it.

<i>Mucor circinelloides</i> Species of fungus

Mucor circinelloides is a dimorphic fungus belonging to the Order Mucorales. It has a worldwide distribution, found mostly in soil, dung and root vegetables. This species is described as not known to be able to produce mycotoxins, however it has been frequently reported to infect animals such as cattle and swine, as well as fowl, platypus and occasionally humans. Ketoacidotic patients are particularly at risk for infection by M. circinelloides.

Ulocladium botrytis is an anamorphic filamentous fungus belonging to the phylum Ascomycota. Commonly found in soil and damp indoor environments, U.botrytis is a hyphomycetous mould found in many regions of the world. It is also occasionally misidentified as a species of the genera Alternaria or Pithomyces due to morphological similarities. Ulocladium botrytis is rarely pathogenic to humans but is associated with human allergic responses and is used in allergy tests. Ulocladium botrytis has been implicated in some cases of human fungal nail infection. The fungus was first discovered in 1851 by German mycologist Carl Gottlieb Traugott Preuss.

Exophiala pisciphila is a mesophilic black yeast and member of the dark septate endophytes. This saprotrophic fungus is found commonly in marine and soil environments. It is abundant in harsh environments like soil contaminated with heavy metals. E. pisciphila forms symbiotic relationships with various plants by colonizing on roots, conferring resistance to drought and heavy metal stress. It is an opportunistic pathogen that commonly causes infections in captive fish and amphibians, while rarely causing disease in humans. Secondary metabolites produced by this species have potential clinical antibiotic and antiretroviral applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mucoromycota</span> Diverse group of molds

Mucoromycota is a division within the kingdom fungi. It includes a diverse group of various molds, including the common bread molds Mucor and Rhizopus. It is a sister phylum to Dikarya.

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