Native American reservation politics

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Pow wow, Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation

Native American politics remain divided over different issues such as assimilation, education, healthcare, and economic factors that affect reservations. As a multitude of nations living within the United States, the Native American peoples face conflicting opinions within their tribes, essentially those living on federally approved reservations. Interactions with the federal government and the overall American culture surrounding them influence day-to-day tribal life. Native American culture as a whole rests between the divide of the traditionalists and those who wish to trade the old ways for improved conditions.

Contents

Poverty and culture

1940 government photo of Chippewa baby teething on a magazine titled Indians at Work 1940 govt photo minnesota farming scene chippewa baby teething on magazine indians at work.jpg
1940 government photo of Chippewa baby teething on a magazine titled Indians at Work

"Approximately 14 percent of all American Indians in 1980 lived on large reservations with reservation poverty of 40 percent or higher." [1] Despite the conditions, Natives continue to live on the reservations because they see it as a cultural center for their particular tribe, value the implied sense of community, and receive government-funded benefits that they wouldn't gain otherwise. [1] As a cultural center, the reservations serve as a holding place for the old ways of Native American customs. "In the southeastern or Woodland tradition, those old ways are most often connected to myths, stories, music, and dance." [2] There are some unwilling to share the "old ways" with outsiders because they feel it is sacred knowledge not easily given away to someone not of Native lineage. [2]

Organizations such as Native American Community Development Institute have been created "as an alliance of the major Indian nonprofits and several Indian businesses in the metropolitan area committed to community-building through sector economic development and large-scale development". [3] They are devoted to the increase in economic innovation, and accomplish their mission by focusing on the growing number of Native youths and not placing a priority on traditional ways.

Native Americans suffer not only the highest poverty rates of all ethnic groups in America, but also the highest unemployment and disease rates. [4] Substance use is common among the youth as well as teenage pregnancy and suicide.

Indigenous Land and Waste Management Facilities

Structural violence plays a significant role in many hazardous waste facilities being located on tribal lands. With Native American peoples being among the lowest socioeconomic class, they are vulnerable to exploitation by these waste facilities and other private sectors. Tribal Lands are subject to different environmental policies than non-native lands, hazardous waste and nuclear waste facilities have taken to offering generous stipends to tribes and Native Americans to build waste or nuclear facilities on their land. [5] Some of these stipends can go into the millions which can be extremely tempting to tribes considering their socioeconomic status and lack of economic improvement. Because of this, hazardous waste management and disposal disproportionately affects native american groups by nearly 1.8%. [6] This has been referred to as something called a “Toxic Trade” [7] and is comparable to bribery and/or blackmail. Many tribes are torn by these facilities - some encourage it because of the economic opportunities it would bring, others adamantly refuse it due to health and environmental degradation. [6] Environmental Genocide has existed for hundreds of years, appearing as settlers burning a harvest or slaughtering livestock owned by Native Americans. However, “environmental genocide” looks different now. With no malicious or purposeful intent to exterminate all Native Americans, corporations are able to release these toxins into Native communities, groundwater, and soil under the guise of safely disposing harmful waste. [7] The proposition of hosting hazardous waste management facilities or nuclear plants on native lands can be tempting to some tribal governments. Not only do they see economic growth opportunities or financial subsidies or returns, they also see opportunities for dealing with their own waste management practices, or employing their land. [7] In a quote from a Nuclear Age Peace Foundation member, Bayley Lopez, he says “In the quest to dispose of nuclear waste, the government and private companies have disregarded and broken treaties, blurred the definition of Native American sovereignty, and directly engaged in a form of economic racism akin to bribery." [5] With the combination of these private waste corporations looking for cheap and easy land combined with some tribes being desperate for financial and economic growth eventually leads to a textbook exploitation ring. Native exploitation is not a new concept or phenomenon. Various treaties developed by collaboration of the US Government and Native Tribes were created to protect Native Americans, their land, their culture, and their health. [8] However, these treaties were blatantly abolished after the discovery of valuable minerals and uranium on Native lands. In consequence, mining began to flourish. Once resources began depleting, mining slowed to a halt and mines effectively became abandoned. [8] Despite mines being abandoned, many chemicals that were required for ore extraction stayed behind and continued to contaminate the soil and groundwater that Native Americans relied on. Some of these chemicals can contain toxins that increase risk of kidney and cardiovascular damage, as well as certain cancers and neurocognitive disorders. [8] With this exploitation, comes activism. In 2007, the Skull Valley Band of Utah’s Goshute Tribe was considering granting a permit to the U.S. government to build a nuclear waste storage facility. This specific band and their land was already home to several hazardous waste management facilities. Two years after the proposed permit, the US Department of Energy decided to scale back on their facility plans after Native advocates, public pressure, and the National Congress of American Indians adamantly condemned and protested the construction of the facility. [5] This activism looks a little different when compared to typical activism where the oppressed groups are fighting directly against the perpetrators of the injustice. However, in this specific issue, the protesting often comes from outside sources (i.e public pressure) versus the directly oppressed group - Native Americans.

Alcohol in reservation life

In a 2008 study by the Prevention Research Center, "Native American youth were more likely to have consumed alcohol in their lifetime and been intoxicated in the [time period of the test] than Whites. Native American drinkers were almost twice as likely to have gotten alcohol from an adult and twice as likely to have obtained alcohol from someone under 21." [9] From 1994 to 1996, the alcoholism death rate among Natives was seven times that of the nation. "Lifetime prevalence of alcohol dependence was high among all tribes (men: 21–56%, women: 17–30%), but one (men: 1%, women: 2%)." [10]

Healthcare: improvements vs. shortcomings

One aspect of reservation life that discourages tribal members is healthcare, a service provided by the United States government for approximately 800,000 Natives. According to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Native Americans receive lower quality healthcare than other minorities such as Hispanics.

With the addition of the HR3200 healthcare bill comes the promise of better services provided for the Native people. There will be an approximate 13% increase in funding for the Indian Health Service. Dr. Roubideaux, the head of the HIS, praises this addition saying, "There is not a Native American alive today who has not witnessed the many shortcomings of the Indian Health Service", but as Dr. Roubideaux has said, "most of the failures were due to an extreme shortage of funds." [11]

Cultural barriers

According to Elaine Watson Jordan, Ph.D., the Native American education system is severely flawed with respect to cultural barriers. In Breaking Barriers, Jordan notes that "it is important to describe the complexities of culture and language to illuminate how limited standardized practices and measures might be to summarize the skills of many children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds". [12] She states that total "indoctrination to a new culture" [12] is not the answer to a healthy education. Jordan argues that barriers must be identified to be overcome and uses the compulsory attendance law of 1898 as an example of overlooking cultural boundaries. "Guided by the belief that American Indians should be assimilated into mainstream society", Congress put into effect this law which would give the federal government the power to place American Indian children in boarding schools, "by force" [12] if necessary.

Family values

In March 1974, the Department of Labor issued the results of their research concerning Native youth integrating American culture into their lives after leaving the reservation for educational and occupational pursuits. [13] Research was done to determine the "occupational adjustment" of American Indian youth coming from reservations and seeking education away from home.

The study found that "the family is perhaps the most important aspect of the traditional Indian's life". [13] Cultural values of Native American individuals are described as, "The traditional Indian's view of the world and his own place in it is one of living in harmony with nature". [13]

In also studying the parents of the children observed, "they distrust the white man as one who wants to destroy their culture, and are likely to see the problems of the Indians as having been created by the white man". [13] In response to this research, a counselor for a youth organization said, "We want to be assured that we are not misused at all, but that the project will be used in a good way for the benefit of our people".

Natives did not welcome the research because "there is very little history of community involvement" [13] and trying to get Native youths who were taught early to be community-oriented is a difficult process in this aspect.

Educational interests

In June 2004, 90% of high school age natives attended public school, although the dropout rate was the highest of any minority. Beyond the fourth grade, academic performance drops quickly. A survey of schools indicates the reasoning behind the dropouts:

Despite the dropout rate, some Native students have elected to go to college of their own accord, though the transition is difficult in regards to financing and receiving support from home. "Hispanics and Native Americans trail substantially behind blacks in terms of college enrollment, retention, and graduation despite the fact that they, like blacks, may benefit from Affirmative Action." A National Educational Longitudinal Survey revealed that in the late 1990s, the United States Education system served 1.4% of Natives. Also, Native Americans are the second most disadvantaged minority group in the nation when it comes to transitioning from single parent households to a continued education. [15]

In her book Living Through the Generations: Continuity and Change in Navajo Women's Lives, Joanna McCloskey addresses a growing desire to receive a further education among her Native youth. "Younger generations recognize the necessity of further training and education to compete in the labor force, and high school graduation remains symbolic of the vast gulf between the elders who never attended school." [16]

Achievement gap regarding language

To evade a shift to English, some Native American tribes have initiated language immersion schools for children, where a native Indian language is the medium of instruction. For example, the Cherokee Nation instigated a 10-year language preservation plan that involved growing new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home. [17] This plan was part of an ambitious goal that in 50 years, 80% or more of the Cherokee people will be fluent in the language. [18] The Cherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $3 million into opening schools, training teachers, and developing curricula for language education, as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used. [18] Formed in 2006, the Kituwah Preservation & Education Program (KPEP) on the Qualla Boundary focuses on language immersion programs for children from birth to fifth grade, developing cultural resources for the general public and community language programs to foster the Cherokee language among adults. [19]

There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. [20] Because Oklahoma's official language is English, Cherokee immersion students are hindered when taking state-mandated tests because they have little competence in English. [21] The Department of Education of Oklahoma said that in 2012 state tests: 11% of the school's sixth-graders showed proficiency in math, and 25% showed proficiency in reading; 31% of the seventh-graders showed proficiency in math, and 87% showed proficiency in reading; 50% of the eighth-graders showed proficiency in math, and 78% showed proficiency in reading. [21] The Oklahoma Department of Education listed the charter school as a Targeted Intervention school, meaning the school was identified as a low-performing school but has not so that it was a Priority School. [21] Ultimately, the school made a C, or a 2.33 grade point average on the state's A-F report card system. [21] The report card shows the school getting an F in mathematics achievement and mathematics growth, a C in social studies achievement, a D in reading achievement, and an A in reading growth and student attendance. [21] "The C we made is tremendous," said school principal Holly Davis, "[t]here is no English instruction in our school's younger grades, and we gave them this test in English." [21] She said she had anticipated the low grade because it was the school's first year as a state-funded charter school, and many students had difficulty with English. [21] Eighth graders who graduate from the Tahlequah immersion school are fluent speakers of the language, and they usually go on to attend Sequoyah High School where classes are taught in both English and Cherokee.

Changing gender roles

"The Great Law of Peace included a section akin to the U.S. Bill of Rights, protecting the freedom of worship, speech, and assembly. The Cherokees limited town size so that all citizens could have the opportunity to speak in each council session if they so desired. Both republics were gender-blind, allowing women and men the same opportunities to participate and, if elected, to lead." [22]

As late as 1989, some Native women retained the belief that raising families was their duty. One woman, Cindy Negale describes, "I prefer the traditional life because I was brought up very traditional by my grandparents...I am telling [my children] that Navajo is important." [16] Also, she reveals that having large families is discouraged by the Indian Health Service because there is not enough healthcare money available for them. This opposes the Native standard that "prenatal values, integral to matrilineal clan membership, were expressed in pride in children". [16]

As well, other Native women have chosen to decrease the size of their families. The grandmothers would choose a path of natural fertility and give birth until they no longer could. In the present day, most mothers decided to limit their families to three to four children. "No longer sources of labor, the children become investments during long years of growth and education." [16]

Political opportunities have not completely limited the impacts of Native American women. Mae Chee Castillo (Navajo) has made tremendous strides for socioeconomic equality during the 1980s. Mae Chee Castillo is considered a Navajo heroine amongst many honorable tribal sentiments. [23] These sentiments also include grandmother, community steward, and cultural preservationist (storyteller). Mae Chee Castillo is revered as a political activist for publicly "lecturing [24] " and requesting presidential actions to sustain economic policies within Native American societies. [25] Her demonstrations have set a political precedence for Native American women.

Self-government

AIM flag Flag of the American Indian Movement.svg
AIM flag

"The Iroquois and the Cherokees did not value the process of a democratic republic because it consumed their identity; they valued it because it protected their individuality. The political debate from the Cherokee town council to the Iroquois Grand Council limited by law what the group could do to the person." [22] The Natives place a high importance on individuality in government and thus, the issues dividing them will be resolved using a democratic-like resolution.

Through the self-determination policy proposed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1968, tribal governments have the right to control federal programs directed at the Native Americans. Instead of supervising the tribes, the Bureau of Indian Affairs "began to serve". [26] Congress then passed legislation recognizing the tribal judicial system and the decisions made through it.

Groups such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) support this movement because it allows them to act independent of the United States government while still securing their voting rights.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Native Americans in the United States</span> Indigenous peoples of the United States

Native Americans, sometimes called American Indians, First Americans, or Indigenous Americans, are the Indigenous peoples of the United States or portions thereof, such as American Indians from the contiguous United States and Alaska Natives. The United States Census Bureau defines Native American as "all people indigenous to the United States and its territories, including Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders, whose data are published separately from American Indians and Alaska Natives". The U.S. census tracks data from American Indians and Alaska Native separately from Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders, who include Samoan Americans and Chamorros.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hopi</span> Native American tribe

The Hopi are Native Americans who primarily live in northeastern Arizona. The majority are enrolled in the Hopi Tribe of Arizona and live on the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona; however, some Hopi people are enrolled in the Colorado River Indian Tribes of the Colorado River Indian Reservation at the border of Arizona and California.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Navajo Nation</span> Federally recognized tribe within the Southwest United States

The Navajo Nation, also known as Navajoland, is a Native American reservation of Navajo people in the United States. It occupies portions of northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southeastern Utah. The seat of government is located in Window Rock, Arizona.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tribal sovereignty in the United States</span> Type of political status of Native Americans

Tribal sovereignty in the United States is the concept of the inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves within the borders of the United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian reservation</span> Land managed by Native American nations under the US Bureau of Indian Affairs

An American Indian reservation is an area of land held and governed by a U.S. federal government-recognized Native American tribal nation, whose government is sovereign, subject to regulations passed by the United States Congress and administered by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs, and not to the U.S. state government in which it is located. Some of the country's 574 federally recognized tribes govern more than one of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States, while some share reservations, and others have no reservation at all. Historical piecemeal land allocations under the Dawes Act facilitated sales to non–Native Americans, resulting in some reservations becoming severely fragmented, with pieces of tribal and privately held land being treated as separate enclaves. This jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties.

The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI), is a federally recognized Indian tribe based in western North Carolina in the United States. They are descended from the small group of 800–1,000 Cherokee who remained in the Eastern United States after the U.S. military, under the Indian Removal Act, moved the other 15,000 Cherokee to west of the Mississippi River in the late 1830s, to Indian Territory. Those Cherokee remaining in the east were to give up tribal Cherokee citizenship and to assimilate. They became U.S. citizens.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blood quantum laws</span> American laws of race

Blood quantum laws or Indian blood laws are laws in the United States that define Native American status by fractions of Native American ancestry. These laws were enacted by the federal government and state governments as a way to establish legally defined racial population groups. By contrast, many tribes do not include blood quantum as part of their own enrollment criteria.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cherokee Nation</span> Native American tribe in Oklahoma, United States

The Cherokee Nation, also known as the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, is the largest of three Cherokee federally recognized tribes in the United States. It includes people descended from members of the Old Cherokee Nation who relocated, due to increasing pressure, from the Southeast to Indian Territory and Cherokee who were forced to relocate on the Trail of Tears. The tribe also includes descendants of Cherokee Freedmen, Absentee Shawnee, and Natchez Nation. As of 2023, over 450,000 people were enrolled in the Cherokee Nation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</span> By the US, into European–American culture

A series of efforts were made by the United States to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream European–American culture between the years of 1790 and 1920. George Washington and Henry Knox were first to propose, in the American context, the cultural assimilation of Native Americans. They formulated a policy to encourage the so-called "civilizing process". With increased waves of immigration from Europe, there was growing public support for education to encourage a standard set of cultural values and practices to be held in common by the majority of citizens. Education was viewed as the primary method in the acculturation process for minorities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reservation poverty</span> Poverty on Native American reservations

Reservations in the United States, known as Indian reservations, are sovereign Native American territories that are managed by a tribal government in cooperation with the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs, a branch of the Department of the Interior, located in Washington, DC. There are 334 reservations in the United States today. As of 2008, almost a third of Native Americans in the United States live on reservations, totaling approximately 700,000 individuals. About half of all Native Americans living on reservations are concentrated on the ten largest reservations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tribal colleges and universities</span> Type of American higher education institution

In the United States, tribal colleges and universities (TCUs) are a category of higher education, minority-serving institutions defined in the Higher Education Act of 1965. Each qualifies for funding under the Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities Assistance Act of 1978 or the Navajo Community College Act ; or is cited in section 532 of the Equity in Educational Land-Grant Status Act of 1994.

The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, also known as the Harvard Project, was founded in 1987 at Harvard Kennedy School at Harvard University. It administers tribal awards programs as well as provides support for students and conducting research. The Harvard Project aims to understand and foster the conditions under which sustained, self-determined social and economic development is achieved among American Indian nations through applied research and service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cherokee Preservation Foundation</span>

Cherokee Preservation Foundation is an independent nonprofit foundation established in 2000 as part of the Tribal-State Compact amendment between the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) and the State of North Carolina. The Foundation is funded by the EBCI from gaming revenues generated by the Tribe; it is not associated with any for-profit gaming entity and is a separately functioning organization independent of the Tribal government. It works to improve the quality of life of the EBCI and strengthen the western North Carolina region by balancing Cherokee ways with the pursuit of new opportunities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Native American Languages Act of 1990</span> Civil rights law of the United States

The Native American Languages Act of 1990 (NALA) is a US statute that gives historical importance as repudiating past policies of eradicating indigenous languages of the Americas by declaring as policy that Native Americans were entitled to use their own languages. The fundamental basis of the policy's declaration was that the United States "declares to preserve, protect and promote the rights and freedom of Native Americans to use practice and develop Native American Languages".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Native Americans and reservation inequality</span> Social issue in the U.S.

Native American reservation inequality underlies a range of societal issues that affect the lives of Native American populations residing on reservations in the United States. About one third of the Native American population, about 700,000 people, lives on an Indian Reservation in the United States. Reservation poverty and other discriminatory factors have led to persisting social inequality on Native American reservations. Disparities between many aspects of life at the national level and at the reservation level, such as quality of education, quality of healthcare, substance use disorders, teenage pregnancy, violence, and suicide rates are significant in demonstrating the inequality of opportunities and situations between reservations and the rest of the country.

Contemporary Native American issues in the United States are topics arising in the late 20th century and early 21st century which affect Native Americans in the United States. Many issues stem from the subjugation of Native Americans in society, including societal discrimination, racism, cultural appropriation through sports mascots, and depictions in art. Native Americans have also been subject to substantial historical and intergenerational trauma that have resulted in significant public health issues like alcohol use disorder and risk of suicide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Native American policy of the Barack Obama administration</span>

The United States public policy agenda on issues affecting Native Americans under the Obama administration includes the signing of the Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010, which allowed tribal courts to extend and expand sentences handed down to them in criminal cases, strengthening tribal autonomy. Obama also supported and enforced the Executive Order 13175, which requires the federal government to consult with tribal governments when deliberating over policies and programs that would affect tribal communities. Under the Obama Administration was also the launching of Michelle Obama's program Let's Move In Indian Country, which aims to improve opportunities for physical activity, to increase access to healthy food in tribal communities, and to create collaborations between private and public sectors to build programs that will end childhood obesity in Native communities. Obama also supported tribal communities through certain provisions of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which allocated $510 million for rehabilitation of Native American housing, and the settlement of the Keepseagle case, a lawsuit against the United States Department of Agriculture for discriminating against tribal communities by not allowing them equal access to the USDA Farm Loan Program. Most recently, Obama signed Executive Order 13592, which seeks to improve educational opportunities for American Indian and Alaska Natives. Obama has been praised by many tribal leaders, including those who claim he has done more for Native Americans than all of his predecessors combined.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cherokee Immersion School</span> Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, United States

The Cherokee Immersion School is a Cherokee language immersion school in Park Hill, Oklahoma, with a Tahlequah post office address. It is for children during pre-school to grade 8.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Native American tribes and tribal communities</span> Effects of the viral outbreak on tribal communities

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on Native American tribes and tribal communities has been severe and has emphasized underlying inequalities in Native American communities compared to the majority of the American population. The pandemic exacerbated existing healthcare and other economic and social disparities between Native Americans and other racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Along with black Americans, Latinos, and Pacific Islanders, the death rate in Native Americans due to COVID-19 was twice that of white and Asian Americans, with Native Americans having the highest mortality rate of all racial and ethnic groups nationwide. As of January 5, 2021, the mortality impact in Native American populations from COVID-19 was 1 in 595 or 168.4 deaths in 100,000, compared to 1 in 1,030 for white Americans and 1 in 1,670 for Asian Americans. Prior to the pandemic, Native Americans were already at a higher risk for infectious disease and mortality than any other group in the United States.

References

  1. 1 2 Sandefur, Gary D. American Indian reservations: The first underclass areas?
  2. 1 2 Gregory , H.F. "Pete". The Stories of the Old People. http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Art Archived September 23, 2019, at the Wayback Machine icles_Essays/creole_art_stories_old_peo.html
  3. ↑ About - Native American Community Development Institute. https://www.nacdi.org/about
  4. ↑ Carlson, Peter. In the year of 'Dances with Wolves,' everybody wanted to be on the Senate Indian Affairs Committee. Nearly a decade later, it can hardly get a quorum The Washington Post. February 23, 1997.
  5. 1 2 3 "Reservations about Toxic Waste: Native American Tribes Encouraged to Turn Down Lucrative Hazardous Disposal Deals". Scientific American.
  6. 1 2 Manjeshwar, Sanjana. "The Lasting Harms of Toxic Exposure in Native American Communities – Berkeley Political Review".
  7. 1 2 3 Brook, Daniel (1998). "The American Journal of Economics and Sociology". Environmental Genocide: Native Americans and Toxic Waste. 57 (1): 105–113. JSTOR   3487423.
  8. 1 2 3 Lewis, Johnnye (April 2017). "Mining and Environmental Health Disparities in Native American Communities". Current Environmental Health Reports. 4 (2): 130–141. doi:10.1007/s40572-017-0140-5. PMC   5429369 . PMID   28447316.
  9. ↑ Friese, Bettina, Ph.D., Grube, Joel, Ph.D. Differences In Drinking Behavior And Access To Alcohol Between Native American and White Adolescents Archived June 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine . Journal of Drug Education, 38(3):273-284, 2008
  10. ↑ Dightman, Douglas MPH, Goldman, David MD, Koss Mary P. PhD, Polacca, Mona MSW, Prince, Ronald J. MS, Sanderson, Byron MSW, Yuan, Nicole P. PhD. Adverse Childhood Exposures and Alcohol Dependence Among Seven Native American Tribes. Print
  11. ↑ "How Will Universal Health Care Affect Native Americans?". HuffPost. June 21, 2009. Retrieved March 17, 2023.
  12. 1 2 3 Jordan, Elaine Watson Ph.D. Breaking the Barriers: Educational Empowerment in an Era of Standardization. (2007) ISBN   978-0977946303
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 Belding, Nancye, Miles, H. Guy, Sparks, L. Tamara. Perspective of Adjustment: Rural Navajo and Papago Youth. (1974) Print.
  14. ↑ Alanis, Luisa and Tsai, Grace."Journey to Thinking Multiculturally Archived December 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine ." NASP Communiqué, Vol. 32, #8." June 2004
  15. ↑ Charles, Camille Z, Roscigno, Vincent J, and Torres, Kimberly C. Racial inequality and college attendance: The mediating role of parental investments. (2006)
  16. 1 2 3 4 McCloskey, Joanne. Living Through the Generations: Continuity and Change in Navajo Women's Lives. (2007) Print.
  17. ↑ "Native Now : Language: Cherokee". We Shall Remain - American Experience - PBS. 2008. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
  18. 1 2 "Cherokee Language Revitalization". Cherokee Preservation Foundation. 2014. Archived from the original on April 7, 2014. Retrieved April 9, 2014.
  19. ↑ Kituwah Preservation & Education Program Powerpoint, by Renissa Walker (2012)'. 2012. Print.
  20. ↑ Chavez, Will (April 5, 2012). "Immersion students win trophies at language fair". Cherokeephoenix.org. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Cherokee Immersion School Strives to Save Tribal Language". Youth on Race. Archived from the original on July 3, 2014. Retrieved June 5, 2014.
  22. 1 2 "What Does Securing The Blessings Of Liberty Mean? -". The Freeman Online. December 13, 2019. Retrieved March 17, 2023.
  23. ↑ Donovan, Bill (May 17, 2018). "A hometown hero: Mae Chee Castillo". Navajo Times. Retrieved March 17, 2023.
  24. ↑ Archives, L. A. Times (April 26, 1985). "White House Aide Upbraids Navajo for Lecturing President". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 17, 2023.
  25. ↑ "Remarks at a White House Ceremony Honoring Participants in the Retired Senior Volunteer Program". Ronald Reagan. Retrieved March 17, 2023.
  26. ↑ Fouberg, Erin Hogan. Tribal Territory, Sovereignty, and Governance: A Study of the Cheyenne River and Lake Traverse Indian Reservations. (2000) Print.
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