Nile tilapia

Nile tilapia
	Wild type above,; aquacultured type (likely of hybrid origin) below
Conservation status
	; Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Actinopterygii
Order:	Cichliformes
Family:	Cichlidae
Genus:	Oreochromis
Species:	O. niloticus
Binomial name
	Oreochromis niloticus; (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonyms
	Tilapia crassispina Arambourg, 1948; Perca niloticaLinnaeus, 1758; Chromis nilotica(Linnaeus, 1758); Chromis niloticus(Linnaeus, 1758); Oreochromis nilotica(Linnaeus, 1758); Oreochromis niloticus niloticus(Linnaeus, 1758); Sarotherodon niloticus(Linnaeus, 1758); Tilapia nilotica(Linnaeus, 1758); Tilapia nilotica nilotica(Linnaeus, 1758); Chromis guentheri Steindachner, 1864; Tilapia eduardiana Boulenger, 1912; Oreochromis niloticus eduardianus(Boulenger, 1912); Tilapia nilotica eduardianaBoulenger, 1912; Tilapia cancellata Nichols, 1923; Oreochromis cancellatus cancellatus(Nichols, 1923); Oreochromis niloticus cancellatus(Nichols, 1923); Tilapia nilotica cancellataNichols, 1923; Tilapia calciati Gianferrari, 1924; Tilapia regani Poll, 1932; Tilapia nilotica reganiPoll, 1932; Tilapia inducta Trewavas, 1933; Tilapia vulcaniTrewavas, 1933; Oreochromis niloticus vulcani(Trewavas, 1933); Oreochromis vulcani(Trewavas, 1933); Oreochromis niloticus baringoensisTrewavas, 1983; Oreochromis niloticus filoa Trewavas, 1983; Oreochromis cancellatus filoaTrewavas, 1983; Oreochromis niloticus sugutae Trewavas, 1983; Oreochromis niloticus tanaSeyoum & Kornfield, 1992;

Last updated February 29, 2024

The Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is a species of tilapia, a cichlid fish native to parts of Africa and the Levant, particularly Israel and Lebanon.^[2] Numerous introduced populations exist outside its natural range.^[1]^[3] It is also commercially known as mango fish (not to be confused with mango tilapia, or Sarotherodon galilaeus), nilotica, or boulti.^[4]

Description

The Nile tilapia reaches up to 60 cm (24 in) in length,^[2] and can exceed 5 kg (11 lb).^[5] As typical of tilapia, males reach a larger size and grow faster than females.^[5]

Wild, natural-type Nile tilapias are brownish or grayish overall, often with indistinct banding on their body, and the tail is vertically striped. When breeding, males become reddish, especially on their fins.^[5]^[6] It is commonly confused with the blue tilapita (O. aureus); that species lacks the striped tail pattern, has a red edge to the dorsal fin (this edge is gray or black in Nile tilapia), and males are bluish overall when breeding. The two species can also be separated by meristics.^[6] Because many tilapia in aquaculture and introduced around the world are selectively bred variants and/or hybrids, identifying them using the standard features that can be used in the wild, natural types is often not possible.^[6] The virtually unknown O. ismailiaensis has a plain tail, but otherwise closely resembles (and may only be a variant of) the Nile tilapia.^[7] Regardless, O. ismailiaensis might be extinct, as its only known habitat in northeastern Egypt has disappeared,^[8] although similar-looking individuals (perhaps the same) are known from the vicinity.^[7]

Nile tilapia can live for more than 10 years.^[5]

Range and habitat

The Nile tilapia is native to larger parts of Africa, except Maghreb and almost all of Southern Africa. It is native to tropical West Africa, the Lake Chad basin, and much of the Nile system, including lakes Tana, Albert and Edward–George, as well as lakes Kivu, Tanganyika, and Turkana, and the Awash and Omo Rivers. In Israel, it is native to coastal river basins.^[1]^[2] It has been widely introduced elsewhere, both in Africa and other continents, including tens of countries in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America. In these places, it often becomes highly invasive, threatening the native ecosystems and species.^[1]^[2] However, some introduced populations historically labelled as Nile tilapia either are hybrids or another species; the Nile tilapia and blue tilapia especially often have been confused.^[6]In India, especially in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, the Nile Tilapia was introduced by K. Kamaraj, the then Chief Minister and has become a threat to the native fish species hence.^[9]

The Nile tilapia can be found in most types of freshwater habitats, such as rivers, streams, canals, lakes, and ponds, and ranging from sea level to an altitude of 1,830 m (6,000 ft).^[1]^[2] It also occurs in brackish water, but is unable to survive long-term in full salt water.^[2] The species has been recorded at water temperatures between 8 and 42 °C (46 and 108 °F), although typically above 13.5 °C (56.5 °F),^[2] and the upper lethal limit usually is at 39–40 °C (102–104 °F).^[1] Also, some variations occur depending on the population. For example, those in the northern part of its range survive down to the coldest temperatures, while isolated populations in hot springs in the Awash basin and at Suguta River generally live in waters that are at least 32–33 °C (90–91 °F).^[8] Although Nile tilapia can survive down to relatively cold temperatures, breeding generally only occurs when the water reaches 24 °C (75 °F).^[5]

Subspecies

O. n. niloticus ChromisNiloticus.jpg — *O. n. niloticus*

Although FishBase considers the species as monotypic,^[2] several distinctive populations often are recognized as valid subspecies:^[1]^[8]^[10]

O. n. niloticus(Linnaeus, 1758) – most of species' range
O. n. baringoensisTrewavas, 1983 – Lake Baringo in Kenya
O. n. cancellatus(Nichols, 1923) – Awash basin in Ethiopia
O. n. eduardianus(Boulenger, 1912) – Albertine Rift Valley lakes
O. n. filoaTrewavas, 1983 – hot springs in Awash basin in Ethiopia
O. n. sugutaeTrewavas, 1983 – Karpeddo soda springs at Suguta River in Kenya
O. n. tanaSeyoum & Kornfield, 1992 – Lake Tana in Ethiopia
O. n. vulcaniTrewavas, 1933 – Lake Turkana in Ethiopia and Kenya

While the species is overall very widespread and common, the IUCN considers O. n. baringoensis as endangered, O. n. sugutae as vulnerable, and O. n. filoa as data deficient.^[1]

A population found in Lake Bogoria appears to be an undescribed subspecies.^[8]

The forms referred to as Oreochromis (or Tilapia) nyabikere and kabagole seem to belong to this species, too. An undescribed population found at, for example, Wami River, Lake Manyara, and Tingaylanda seems to be a close relative.^[11]

Behavior

Feeding

The Nile tilapia is mostly a herbivore, but with omnivorous tendencies, especially when young.^[2] They mostly feed on phytoplankton and algae, and in some populations other macrophytes also are important.^[1] Other recorded food items are detritus and aquatic insect larvae,^[2] including those of mosquitoes, making it a possible tool in the fight against malaria in Africa.^[12] However, when introduced outside its native range, it often becomes invasive, threatening more localized species.^[2]

The Nile tilapia typically feeds during daytime, which suggests that, similar to trout and salmon, it exhibits a behavioral response to light as a main factor contributing to feeding activity. Due to its fast reproductive rate, however, overpopulation often results within groups of Nile tilapia. To obtain the necessary nutrients, night feeding may also occur due to competition for food during daylight. A recent study found evidence that, contrary to popular belief, size dimorphism between the sexes results from differential food conversion efficiency rather than different amounts of food consumed. Hence, although males and females eat equal amounts of food, males tend to grow larger due to a higher efficiency of converting food to body weight.^[13]

Social organization

Groups of Nile tilapia establish social hierarchies in which the dominant males have priority for both food and mating. Circular nests are built predominantly by males through mouth digging to become future spawning sites. These nests often become sites of intense courtship rituals and parental care.^[14] Like other fish, Nile tilapia travel almost exclusively in schools. Although males settle down in their crafted nesting zones, females travel between zones to find mates, resulting in competition between the males for females.^{[ citation needed ]}

Like other tilapias, such as Mozambique tilapia, dominance between the males is established first through noncontact displays such as lateral display and tail beats. Unsuccessful attempts to reconcile the hierarchy results in contact fighting to inflict injuries. Nile tilapia have been observed to modify their fighting behavior based upon experiences during development. Thus, experience in a certain form of agonistic behavior results in differential aggressiveness among individuals.^[15] Once the social hierarchy is established within a group, the dominant males enjoy the benefits of both increased access to food and an increased number of mates. However, social interactions between males in the presence of females results in higher energy expenditures as a consequence of courtship displays and sexual competition.^[13]

Reproduction

Typical of most fish, Nile tilapia reproduce through mass spawning of a brood within a nest made by the male. In such an arrangement, territoriality and sexual competition amongst the males lead to large variations in reproductive success for individuals in a group. The genetic consequence of such behavior is reduced genetic variability in the long run, as inbreeding is likely to occur among different generations due to differential male reproductive success.^[16] Perhaps driven by reproductive competition, tilapias reproduce within a few months after birth. The relatively young age of sexual maturation within Nile tilapia leads to high birth and turnover rates. Consequently, the rapid reproductive rate of individuals can actually have a negative impact on growth rate, leading to the appearance of stunted tilapia as a result of a reduction in somatic growth in favor of sexual maturation.^[17]

Female Nile tilapia, in the presence of other females either visually or chemically, exhibit shortened interspawning intervals. Although parental investment by a female extends the interspawning period, female tilapia that abandon their young to the care of a male gain this advantage of increased interspawning periods. One of the possible purposes behind this mechanism is to increase the reproductive advantage of females that do not have to care for young, allowing them more opportunities to spawn.^[18] For males, reproductive advantage goes to the more dominant males. Males have differential levels of gonadotropic hormones responsible for spermatogenesis, with dominant males having higher levels of the hormone. Thus, selection has favored larger sperm production with more successful males. Similarly, dominant males have both the best territory in terms of resources and the greatest access to mates.^[19] Furthermore, visual communication between Nile tilapia mates both stimulates and modulates reproductive behavior between partners such as courtship, spawning frequency, and nest building.^[14]

Parental care

Species belonging to the genus Oreochromis typically care for their young through mouthbrooding, oral incubation of the eggs and larvae. Similar to other tilapia, Nile tilapia are maternal mouthbrooders and extensive care is, therefore, provided almost exclusively by the female. After spawning in a nest made by a male, the young fry or eggs are carried in the mouth of the mother for a period of 12 days. Sometimes, the mother pushes the young back into her mouth if she believes they are not ready for the outside. Nile tilapias also demonstrate parental care in times of danger. When approached by a danger, the young often swim back into the protection of their mother's mouth.^[20] However, mouthbrooding leads to significant metabolic modifications for the parents, usually the mother, as reflected by fluctuations in body weight and low fitness. Thus, parental-offspring conflict can be observed through the costs and benefits of mouthbrooding. Protection of the young ensures passage of an individual's genes into the future generations, but caring for the young also reduces an individual's own reproductive fitness.^[17]

Since female Nile tilapia exhibiting parental care show extended interspawning periods, one of the benefits is slowing down vitellogenesis (yolk deposition) to increase the survival rate of one's own young. The size of spawned eggs correlates directly with advantages concerning hatching time, growth, survival, and onset of feeding, since increased egg size means increased nutrients for the developing young. Thus, one of the reasons behind a delayed interspawning period by female Nile tilapia may be for the benefit of offspring survival.^[18]^[21]

Aquaculture

Tilapia, likely the Nile tilapia, was well known as food fish in Ancient Egypt and commonly featured in their art (paintings and sculptures). This includes a 4000-year-old tomb illustration that shows them in man-made ponds, likely an early form of aquaculture.^[5]^[22] In modern aquaculture, wild-type Nile tilapia are not farmed very often because the dark color of their flesh is undesirable for many customers, and because of the reputation the fish has as being a trash fish.^[23] However, they are fast-growing and produce good fillets; leucistic ("red") breeds which have lighter meat have been developed to counter the consumer distaste for darker meat.^{[ citation needed ]}

Hybrid stock is also used in aquaculture; Nile × blue tilapia hybrids are usually rather dark, but a light-colored hybrid breed known as "Rocky Mountain White" tilapia is often grown due to its very light flesh and tolerance of low temperatures.^[23]

As food

The red-hybrid Nile tilapia is known in the Thai language as pla thapthim (Thai : ปลาทับทิม), meaning "pomegranate fish" or "ruby fish".^[24] This type of tilapia is very popular in Thai cuisine, where it is prepared in a variety of ways.^[25]

The black-and-white-striped tilapia pla nin (Thai : ปลานิล), has darker flesh and is commonly either salted and grilled or deep-fried, and it can also be steamed with lime (pla nin nueng manao).^[26]

Nile tilapia, called بلطيbulṭī in Arabic, is (being native to Egypt) among the most common fish in Egyptian cuisine, and probably the most common in regions far from the coast. It is generally either battered and pan-fried whole (بلطي مقليbulṭī maqlī [bʊltˤiː maʔliː]) or grilled whole (بلطي مشويbulṭī mashwī [bʊltˤiː maʃwiː]). Like other fish in Egypt, is generally served with rice cooked with onions and other seasonings to turn it red.^{[ citation needed ]}

In Israel, Nile tilapia is commonly fried, grilled or baked with vegetables herbs and spices and eaten with rice or bulgur pilafs. It is also baked in the oven with tahini sauce drizzled over it with potatoes, onions, asparagus, sweet peppers or tomatoes and flavored with sumac and dried mint.^{[ citation needed ]}

Tilapia, often farmed, is a popular and common supermarket fish in the United States.^{[ citation needed ]}

In India, Nile tilapia is the most dominant fish in some of the South Indian reservoirs and available throughout the year. O. niloticus grows faster and reaches bigger sizes in a given time. The littoral areas of Kelavarappalli Reservoir are full of nests of Nile tilapia and they breed during south-west monsoon (July–September). The fish mainly feed on detritus. Zooplankton, phytoplankton, and macrophytes also were recorded occasionally from the gut of Nile tilapia. The demand is heavy, especially from local poor people, as this fish is affordable to the lowest income group in this area.^[27]

Related Research Articles

Cichlids are fish from the family Cichlidae in the order Cichliformes. Traditionally Cichlids were classed in a suborder, the Labroidei, along with the wrasses (Labridae), in the order Perciformes, but molecular studies have contradicted this grouping. On the basis of fossil evidence, it first appeared in Tanzania during the Eocene epoch, about 46–45 million years ago. The closest living relative of cichlids is probably the convict blenny, and both families are classified in the 5th edition of Fishes of the World as the two families in the Cichliformes, part of the subseries Ovalentaria. This family is large, diverse, and widely dispersed. At least 1,650 species have been scientifically described, making it one of the largest vertebrate families. New species are discovered annually, and many species remain undescribed. The actual number of species is therefore unknown, with estimates varying between 2,000 and 3,000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tilapia</span> Common name for many species of fish

Tilapia is the common name for nearly a hundred species of cichlid fish from the coelotilapine, coptodonine, heterotilapine, oreochromine, pelmatolapiine, and tilapiine tribes, with the economically most important species placed in the Coptodonini and Oreochromini. Tilapia are mainly freshwater fish inhabiting shallow streams, ponds, rivers, and lakes, and less commonly found living in brackish water. Historically, they have been of major importance in artisanal fishing in Africa, and they are of increasing importance in aquaculture and aquaponics. Tilapia can become a problematic invasive species in new warm-water habitats such as Australia, whether deliberately or accidentally introduced, but generally not in temperate climates due to their inability to survive in cold water.

Mouthbrooding, also known as oral incubation and buccal incubation, is the care given by some groups of animals to their offspring by holding them in the mouth of the parent for extended periods of time. Although mouthbrooding is performed by a variety of different animals, such as the Darwin's frog, fish are by far the most diverse mouthbrooders. Mouthbrooding has evolved independently in several different families of fish.

Oreochromis is a large genus of oreochromine cichlids, fishes endemic to Africa and the Middle East. A few species from this genus have been introduced far outside their native range and are important in aquaculture. Many others have very small ranges; some are seriously threatened, and O. ismailiaensis and O. lidole possibly are extinct. Although Oreochromis primarily are freshwater fish of rivers, lakes and similar habitats, several species can also thrive in brackish waters and some even survive in hypersaline conditions with a salinity that far surpasses that of seawater. In addition to overfishing and habitat loss, some of the more localized species are threatened by the introduction of other, more widespread Oreochromis species into their ranges. This is because they—in addition to competing for the local resources—often are able to hybridize.

The Tilapiini are a tribe within the family Cichlidae commonly known as tilapiine cichlids. Formerly this tribe contained many other genera and species, including the economically important Oreochromis and Sarotherodon, but a taxonomic review found that this grouping was paraphyletic and most were moved to Coelotilapini, Coptodonini, Heterotilapini, Oreochromini and Pelmatolapiini. Together, most species in these tribes are called "tilapias". In a more distant past, a number of other, more different genera like Steatocranus also were included in Tilapiini. With these as separate, Tilapiini now is a much more restricted tribe with only three genera and about half a dozen species from Central and Southern Africa.

Tilapia has become the third most important fish in aquaculture after carp and salmon; worldwide production exceeded 1.5 million metric tons in 2002 and increases annually. Because of their high protein content, large size, rapid growth, and palatability, a number of coptodonine and oreochromine cichlids—specifically, various species of Coptodon, Oreochromis, and Sarotherodon—are the focus of major aquaculture efforts.

Throughout much of the tropics, tilapiine cichlids native to Africa and the Levant have been widely introduced into a variety of aquatic systems. In the U.S. states of Florida and Texas, tilapia were originally introduced to curtail invasive plants. In an effort to meet the growing demand for tilapia, humans have farmed these fish in countries around the world. Capable of establishing themselves into new ponds and waterways, many tilapia have escaped aquaculture facilities across much of Asia, Africa, and South America. In other cases, tilapia have been established into new aquatic habitats via aquarists or ornamental fish farmers.

The Mozambique tilapia is an oreochromine cichlid fish native to southeastern Africa. Dull colored, the Mozambique tilapia often lives up to a decade in its native habitats. It is a popular fish for aquaculture. Due to human introductions, it is now found in many tropical and subtropical habitats around the globe, where it can become an invasive species because of its robust nature. These same features make it a good species for aquaculture because it readily adapts to new situations. It is known as black tilapia in Colombia and as blue kurper in South Africa.

The silver cyprinid also known as the Lake Victoria sardine, mukene, and omena, dagaa (Swahili) is a species of pelagic, freshwater ray-finned fish in the carp family, Cyprinidae from East Africa. It is the only member of the genus Rastrineobola.

Oreochromis amphimelas is a species of tilapia cichlid endemic to north–central Tanzania, where it is found in Lake Manyara and a number of other saline lakes with closed basins. Maximum recorded size is 28 cm (11 in) in standard length.

Oreochromis esculentus, the Singida tilapia or Graham's tilapia, is a species of cichlid endemic to the Lake Victoria basin, including some of its satellite lakes such as Kyoga, in Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Its common name refers to Lake Singida, but this population is the result of an introduction that happened in the 1950s. This fish is highly valued by local fishermen, who know it as ngege.

<i>Oreochromis leucostictus</i> Species of fish

Oreochromis leucostictus is a species of cichlid native to Albertine Rift Valley lakes and associated rivers in DR Congo and Uganda. It has now been introduced widely elsewhere East Africa, and is believed to have negative ecological impact, particularly on native tilapias. This species is reported to reach a standard length of up to 36.3 cm (14.3 in), but is usually much smaller. It is exploited by small-scale fishery and aquaculture operations.

Oreochromis lidole is a species of freshwater fish in the family Cichlidae. This tilapia is native to Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania, where it is found in Lake Malawi, Lake Malombe, the Shire River and perhaps some crater lakes further north. It is important in fisheries, but has drastically declined; it may already be extinct. This oreochromine cichlid is locally called chambo, a name also used for two other closely related species found in the same region, O. karongae and O. squamipinnis.

<i>Oreochromis variabilis</i> Species of fish

Oreochromis variabilis, the Victoria tilapia, is a species of African cichlid native to Lake Victoria and its tributaries, Lake Kyoga, Lake Kwania, and Lake Bisina (Salisbury), as well as being found in the Victoria Nile above Murchison Falls. This species can reach a standard length of 30 cm (12 in). This species is important to local commercial fisheries and is potentially important in aquaculture. It is also found in the aquarium trade.

The blue tilapia is a species of tilapia, a fish in the family Cichlidae. Native to Northern and Western Africa, and the Middle East, through introductions it is now also established elsewhere, including parts of the United States, where it has been declared an invasive species and has caused significant environmental damage. It is known as the blue kurper in South Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mango tilapia</span> Species of fish

The mango tilapia is a species of fish from the cichlid family that is native to fresh and brackish waters in Africa and the Levant. Other common names include Galilaea tilapia, Galilean comb, Galilee St. Peter's fish, and St. Peter's fish. This is a relatively large cichlid at up to 41 centimetres (16 in) in total length and about 1.6 kilograms (3.5 lb) in weight. It is very important to local fisheries and the species is also aquacultured.

There are two major sources of fish in Uganda; one is from aquaculture, the other from fishing in rivers and lakes. Different types of fish flourish in different water sources. The waters of Uganda contain an impressive array of fish species—over 90 in all. This count does not include the Haplochromis complex, which itself is made up of more than 200 species.

The redbelly tilapia, also known as the Zille's redbreast tilapia or St. Peter's fish, is a species of fish in the cichlid family. This fish is found widely in fresh and brackish waters in the northern half of Africa and the Middle East. Elsewhere in Africa, Asia, Australia and North America, it has been introduced as a food fish or as a control of aquatic vegetation. Where introduced, it sometimes becomes invasive, threatening the local ecology and species. The redbelly tilapia is an important food fish and sometimes aquacultured.

Oreochromini is a tribe of cichlids in the Pseudocrenilabrinae subfamily that is native to Africa and Western Asia, but a few species have been widely introduced to other parts of the world. It was formerly considered to be part of the tribe Tilapiini but more recent workers have found that the Tilapiini sensu lato is paraphyletic. Despite this change, species in Oreochromini are still referred to by the common name tilapia and some of the most important tilapia in aquaculture —certain species of Oreochromis and Sarotherodon— are part of this tribe. In contrast, several species have small ranges and are seriously threatened; a few are already extinct or possibly extinct.

Oreochromis mortimeri, the Kariba tilapia or kurper bream, is a species of cichlid, formerly classified as a Tilapiine cichlid but now placed in the genus Oreochromis, the type genus of the tribe Oreochromini of the subfamily Pseudocrenilabrinae. It is found in the rivers of south central Africa especially the middle Zambezi where it is endangered by the spread of invasive congener Oreochromis niloticus.

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1 2 Peña-Mendoza, B.; J. L. Gómez-Márquez; I. H. Salgado-Ugarte; D. Ramírez-Noguera (September 2005). "Reproductive biology of Oreochromis niloticus (Perciformes: Cichlidae) at Emiliano Zapata dam, Morelos, Mexico". Revista de Biología Tropical. 53 (3/4): 515–522. doi: 10.15517/rbt.v53i3-4.14666 . PMID 17354460.
1 2 Tacon, P. (1 November 1996). "Relationships between the expression of maternal behaviour and ovarian development in the mouthbrooding cichlid fish Oreochromis Niloticus". Aquaculture. 146 (3–4): 261–275. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(96)01389-0.
↑ Pfennig, F.; Kurth, T.; Meissner, S.; Standke, A.; Hoppe, M.; Zieschang, F.; Reitmayer, C.; Gobel, A.; Kretzschmar, G.; Gutzeit, H. O. (26 October 2011). "The social status of the male Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) influences testis structure and gene expression". Reproduction. 143 (1): 71–84. doi:10.1530/REP-11-0292. PMID 22031714.
↑ "Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia)" (PDF). UWI.
↑ Rana, Kausik J. (1986). "Parental influences on egg quality, fry production and fry performance in Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus) and O. mossambicus (Peters)". University of Stirling.
↑ Soliman, N.F.; D.M.M. Yacout (2016). "Aquaculture in Egypt: status, constraints and potentials". Aquaculture International. 24 (5): 1201–1227. doi:10.1007/s10499-016-9989-9. S2CID 16767145.
1 2 "Tilapia". Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20170623071944/http://www.fishtech.mju.ac.th/FishNew1/OSS/files/ByBUzsfTue53948.pdf Management Guidelines of Red Tilapia Culture in Cages, Trang Province (in Thai)
↑ "Recipes for Thaptim Fish". Archived from the original on 2009-09-10. Retrieved 2013-10-05.
↑ Fish breeding in Thailand
↑ Feroz Khan, M.; Panikkar, Preetha (2009). "Assessment of impacts of invasive fishes on the food web structure and ecosystem properties of a tropical reservoir in India". Ecological Modelling. 220 (18): 2281–2290. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.05.020.

External links

View the oreNil2 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser .