Orthobunyavirus

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Orthobunyavirus
Peribunyavirus virion structure.gif
Orthobunyavirus structure (left); transmission electron micrograph of California encephalitis virus (right)
Virus classification Red Pencil Icon.png
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Negarnaviricota
Class: Ellioviricetes
Order: Bunyavirales
Family: Peribunyaviridae
Genus:Orthobunyavirus
Species [1]

See text

Orthobunyavirus is a genus of the Peribunyaviridae family [2] in the order Bunyavirales . There are currently ~170 viruses recognised in this genus. These have been assembled into 103 species [1] and 20 serogroups.

Contents

The name Orthobunyavirus derives from Bunyamwera, Uganda, [3] where the original type species Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus was first discovered, [4] along with the prefix orthos (ορθοϛ) meaning 'straight.' [5]

Epidemiology

The genus is most diverse in Africa and Oceania, but occurs almost worldwide. Most orthobunyavirus species are transmitted by gnats and cause diseases of cattle.[ citation needed ] The California encephalitis virus , the La Crosse virus and the Jamestown Canyon virus are North American species that cause encephalitis in humans.

Virology

Genome of Bunyamwera virus of the genus Orthosbunyavirus Genome of Bunyamwera virus.gif
Genome of Bunyamwera virus of the genus Orthosbunyavirus

Life cycle

Vectors

The primary vectors of Orthobunyaviruses are hematophagous insects of the Culicidae family, including members from a number of mosquito genera (including Aedes, Coquillettidia, Culex, Culiseta, and Anopheles ) and biting midges (such as Culicoides paraensis ). [11] [8] Although transmission by ticks and bed bugs may also occur. Viral vector preference is generally strict, with only a one or very small number of vectors transmitting a specific virus in the region, even where multiple viruses and vectors overlap. [12] Organisms related to the preferential vector may be able to carry a virus but not competently transmit it. [8]

The vector arthropod acquires the virus while taking a blood meal from an infected host. In mosquitoes, replication of orthobunyaviruses is enhanced by immune modulation that occurs as a result of blood protein digestion producing GABA and the activation of GABAergic signalling. [13] Infection is transmitted to a new host via viral particles in vector saliva. [13] Orthobunyavirus infection in arthropod cells is not fully understood, but is generally non-cytopathological and deleterious effects are minimal. [14] [12] Infected mosquitoes may experience an increase in fitness. [12] Transorvarial transmission has been observed among mosquitoes infected with orthobunyaviruses of the California serogroup [8] Like mosquitoes, only female culicoid midges feed on blood; they prefer indoor feeding particularly during rain. [8]

Sylvatic Cycle Hosts

In the sylvatic cycle, viruses are transmitted between mammalian hosts by the arthropod vector. A diverse range of mammals have been identified or implicated as hosts or reservoirs of orthobunyaviruses including: non-human primates, sloths, wild and domestic birds, marmosets, rodents, and large mammals such as deer, moose, and elk. [11] [8]

Infection

Infection begins with the bite of an infected competent vector organism. Viral entry proceeds by receptor-mediated (clathrin-dependent) endocytosis, but which receptors unknown. [14] Although, Heparan sulfate and DC-SIGN (CD209 or Dendritic cell-specific intracellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing non-integrin) have been identified as viral entry components in some orthobunyaviruses. [12] [14] Gn/Gc heterodimers on the viral surface are responsible for target cell recognition, [15] with Gc is considered the primary attachment protein, although Gn has been suggested as the attachment protein for LACV in arthropod cells. [12] Acidification of the endosome triggers a conformational change in the Gc fusion peptide, uncoating the ribonuclearprotein (RNP) as it is released into the cytoplasm. [15]

Upon release into the cytoplasm, primary transcription begins with an endonuclease domain on L protein engaging in a process known as "cap-snatching." [12] [15] During cap-snatching, 10-18 nucleotides of 5' 7-methylguanylate primers are cleaved from host mRNAs and attached to prime the 5' end of the viral RNAs. [8] Like all negative-sense RNA viruses, orthobunyaviruses require ongoing, concurrent translation by the host cell to produce full-length viral mRNAs, consequently the 3' end of orthobunyavirus mRNAs lack polyadenylation. [8] Notably they are also missing the signal for polyadenylation; instead the 3' ends are thought to form a stem-loop structure. [8] [12] Antigenomes (full length positive-sense RNAs) used as templates for replication of the viral genome are produced by L protein RdRp without the need for primers. [8] Both negative-sense genomes and positive-sense antigenomes are associated with N proteins (forming RNPs) at all times during the replication cycle. [16] Thus, N and L are the minimum proteins required for transcription and replication [15] [12]

The M genome segment codes for the Gn-NSm-Gc polyprotein on a single open-reading frame (ORF) which is cotranslationally cleaved by internal signal peptides and host signal peptidase. [15] [8] The free glycoproteins Gc and Gn insert into the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum and form heterodimers. A Golgi retention signal on Gn, permits transport of the heterodimers to the Golgi apparatus, where glycosylation occurs. The presence of the viral glycoproteins modifies the Golgi membrane to enable budding of RNPs into a Golgi derived tubular viral factory (viroplasm). [14] [8] As segmented viruses, orthobuynaviruses require precise packaging of one of each of the three genomic segments into the final virion to produce a mature, infectious particle. Packaging appears to be directed by signals contained entirely within UTR sequences. [12] The packaged genomes acquire a lipid membrane as they bud into the viral factories, are then transported to the host cell plasma membrane and released via exocytosis. A final gylcoprotein modification upon release produces a mature, infectious particle. [12]

Evolution

Orthobunyaviruses evolve partly by a key mechanism known as genomic reassortment, which also occurs in other segmented viruses. When viruses of the same group co-infect a host cell, mixtures and novel combinations of the S, M, and L segments can be produced, increasing diversity. The most common reassortment events are with the L and S segments. [17]

Taxonomy

There are 103 species in the genus: [1]

See also

Related Research Articles

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<i>Bunyavirales</i> Order of RNA viruses

Bunyavirales is an order of segmented negative-strand RNA viruses with mainly tripartite genomes. Member viruses infect arthropods, plants, protozoans, and vertebrates. It is the only order in the class Ellioviricetes. The name Bunyavirales derives from Bunyamwera, where the original type species Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus was first discovered. Ellioviricetes is named in honor of late virologist Richard M. Elliott for his early work on bunyaviruses.

Bwamba orthobunyavirus (BWAV) belongs to the genus Orthobunyavirus and the order Bunyavirales RNA viruses. BWAV is present in large parts of Africa, endemic in Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda. It is transmitted to humans through mosquito bites and results in a brief benign generalised infection with headache, skin rash, diarrhea and joint pain and lasts 4–5 days. The animal reservoir of the virus includes birds, monkeys and donkeys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oropouche fever</span> Medical condition

Oropouche fever is a tropical viral infection transmitted by biting midges and mosquitoes from the blood of sloths to humans. This disease is named after the region where it was first discovered and isolated at the Trinidad Regional Virus Laboratory in 1955 by the Oropouche River in Trinidad and Tobago. Oropouche fever is caused by a specific arbovirus, the Oropouche virus (OROV), of the Bunyaviridae family.

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<i>Orbivirus</i> Genus of viruses

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<i>Phlebovirus</i> Genus of viruses

Phlebovirus is one of twenty genera of the family Phenuiviridae in the order Bunyavirales. The genus contains 66 species. It derives its name from Phlebotominae, the vectors of member species Naples phlebovirus, which is said to be ultimately from the Greek phlebos, meaning "vein". The proper word for "vein" in ancient Greek is however phleps (φλέψ).

<i>Orthonairovirus</i> Genus of viruses

Orthonairovirus is a genus of viruses in the family Nairoviridae of the order Bunyavirales that include viruses with circular, negative-sense single stranded RNA. It got its name from the Nairobi sheep disease that affects the gastrointestinal tracts of sheep and goats. The vast majority, and perhaps all viruses in this genus are tick-borne viruses that can have human or other vertebrate hosts.

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<i>Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus</i> Species of virus

Schmallenberg orthobunyavirus, also called Schmallenberg virus, abbreviated SBV, is a virus that causes congenital malformations and stillbirths in cattle, sheep, goats, and possibly alpaca. It appears to be transmitted by midges, which are likely to have been most active in causing the infection in the Northern Hemisphere summer and autumn of 2011, with animals subsequently giving birth from late 2011. Schmallenberg virus falls in the Simbu serogroup of orthobunyaviruses. It is considered to be most closely related to the Sathuperi and Douglas viruses.

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Tahyna orthobunyavirus ("TAHV") is a viral pathogen of humans classified in the California encephalitis virus (CEV) serogroup of the Orthobunyavirus family in the order Bunyavirales, which is endemic to Europe, Asia, Africa and possibly China.

Batai orthobunyavirus (BATV) is a RNA virus belonging to order Bunyavirales, genus Orthobunyavirus.

Cache Valley orthobunyavirus (CVV) is a member of the order Bunyavirales, genus Orthobunyavirus, and serogroup Bunyamwera, which was first isolated in 1956 from Culiseta inornata mosquitos collected in Utah's Cache Valley. CVV is an enveloped arbovirus, nominally 80–120 nm in diameter, whose genome is composed of three single-stranded, negative-sense RNA segments. The large segment of related bunyaviruses is approximately 6800 bases in length and encodes a probable viral polymerase. The middle CVV segment has a 4463-nucleotide sequence and the smallest segment encodes for the nucleocapsid, and a second non-structural protein. CVV has been known to cause outbreaks of spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations in ruminants such as sheep and cattle. CVV rarely infects humans, but when they are infected it has caused encephalitis and multiorgan failure.

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<i>Sepik virus</i> Mosquito transmitted virus endemic to Papua New Guinea

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References

  1. 1 2 3 "Virus Taxonomy: 2020 Release". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2021. Retrieved 19 May 2021.
  2. ↑ Hughes, HR; Adkins, S; Alkhovskiy, S; Beer, M; Blair, C; Calisher, CH; Drebot, M; Lambert, AJ; de Souza, WM; Marklewitz, M; Nunes, MRT; Shí 石晓宏, X; ICTV Report Consortium (January 2020). "ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Peribunyaviridae". The Journal of General Virology. 101 (1): 1–2. doi:10.1099/jgv.0.001365. PMC   7414433 . PMID   31846417.
  3. 1 2 "ICTV Report Peribunyaviridae".
  4. ↑ Smithburn KC, Haddow AJ, Mahaffy AF (March 1946). "A neurotropic virus isolated from Aedes mosquitoes caught in the Semliki forest". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 26 (2): 189–208. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1946.s1-26.189. OCLC   677158400. PMID   21020339.
  5. ↑ Griffith C (2005). "Dictionary of Botanical Epithets". Dictionary of Botanical Epithets. Retrieved 31 January 2019. orthos orth adj ορθοϛ straight
  6. 1 2 3 "ViralZone page". viralzone.expasy.org. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
  7. ↑ Kascsak RJ, Lyons MJ (October 1977). "Bunyamwera virus. I. The molecular complexity of the virion RNA". Virology. 82 (1): 37–47. doi:10.1016/0042-6822(77)90030-7. PMID   898678.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Evans AB, Peterson KE (August 2019). "Throw out the Map: Neuropathogenesis of the Globally Expanding California Serogroup of Orthobunyaviruses". Viruses. 11 (9): 794. doi: 10.3390/v11090794 . PMC   6784171 . PMID   31470541.
  9. ↑ Genbank: Bunyamwera virus segment S, complete sequence
  10. ↑ Genbank: Bunyamwera virus L segment, complete sequence
  11. 1 2 Sakkas H, Bozidis P, Franks A, Papadopoulou C (April 2018). "Oropouche Fever: A Review". Viruses. 10 (4): 175. doi: 10.3390/v10040175 . PMC   5923469 . PMID   29617280.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Elliott RM (October 2014). "Orthobunyaviruses: recent genetic and structural insights". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 12 (10): 673–85. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro3332 . PMID   25198140.
  13. 1 2 Wu P, Yu X, Wang P, Cheng G (March 2019). "Arbovirus lifecycle in mosquito: acquisition, propagation and transmission". Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine. 21: e1. doi:10.1017/erm.2018.6. PMID   30862324. S2CID   76659884.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Dutuze MF, Nzayirambaho M, Mores CN, Christofferson RC (2018-04-12). "Orthobunyaviruses With Potential One Health Implications". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 5: 69. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00069 . PMC   5906542 . PMID   29707545.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Pawaiya RV, Gupta VK (2013-11-21). "A review on Schmallenberg virus infection: a newly emerging disease of cattle, sheep and goats". Veterinární Medicína. 58 (10): 516–526. doi: 10.17221/7083-vetmed . ISSN   0375-8427.
  16. ↑ Zheng W, Tao YJ (May 2013). "Genome encapsidation by orthobunyavirus nucleoproteins". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (22): 8769–70. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.8769Z. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1306838110 . PMC   3670359 . PMID   23696659.
  17. ↑ da Rosa, Jorge Fernando Travassos; de Souza, William Marciel; de Paula Pinheiro, Francisco; Figueiredo, Mário Luiz; Cardoso, Jedson Ferreira; Acrani, Gustavo Olszanski; Nunes, Márcio Roberto Teixeira (2017-02-06). "Oropouche Virus: Clinical, Epidemiological, and Molecular Aspects of a Neglected Orthobunyavirus". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 96 (5): 16–0672. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0672. ISSN   0002-9637. PMC   5417190 . PMID   28167595.
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