The Palestine Arab Congress was a series of congresses held by the Palestinian Arab population, organized by a nationwide network of local Muslim-Christian Associations, in the British Mandate of Palestine. Between 1919 and 1928, seven congresses were held in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa and Nablus. Despite broad public support their executive committees were never officially recognised by the British, who claimed they were unrepresentative.[1] After the British defeat of Ottoman forces in 1918, the British established military rule and (later) civil administration of Palestine. The Palestine Arab Congress and its organizers in the Muslim-Christian Associations were formed when the country's Arab population began coordinated opposition to British policies.
First Palestine Arab Congress resolution in 1919, addressed to the Paris Peace Conference.
In response to Jewish immigrants settling before the war,[2] the first Palestine Arab Congress met from 27 January to 10 February 1919, with 27 delegates from Muslim-Christian societies across Palestine. It was presided over by Aref al-Dajani, president of the Jerusalem Muslim-Christian Society. Also present were Izzat Darwaza and Yousef El-Issa, editor of Falastin. Most delegates were from the propertied class, and were evenly divided into pro-British and pan-Arab factions. A cable was sent to the Paris Peace Conference, demanding a renunciation of the Balfour Declaration and the inclusion of Palestine as "an integral part of...the independent Arab Government of Syria within an Arab Union, free of any foreign influence or protection".[3]
The Congress rejected political Zionism, agreeing to accept British assistance if it did not impinge on Arab sovereignty in the region. Palestine was envisaged as part of an independent Syrian state, governed by Faisal of the Hashemite family.[4]
The resolutions of the Jerusalem Congress were as follows:
"We consider Palestine nothing but part of Arab Syria and it has never been separated from it at any stage. We are tied to it by national, religious, linguistic, moral, economic, and geographic bounds."[5]
Rejection of French claims to the area
"Our district Southern Syria or Palestine should be not separated from the Independent Arab Syrian Government and be free from all foreign influence and protection"[6]
All foreign treaties referring to the area are deemed void
To maintain friendly relations with Britain and the Allied powers, accepting help if it did not affect the country's independence and Arab unity
It was decided to send a delegation to Damascus and representatives attended the Syrian National Congress in Damascus on 8 June 1919[7] "to inform Arab patriots there of the decision to call Palestine Southern Syria and unite it with Northern Syria",[8] while three members were chosen to attend the Peace Conference in Paris. Failing to elect an executive committee, the congress agreed to meet in three months[9]
The authorities had banned all Arab political gatherings and prevented the congress convening on 15 May 1920 after the San Remo conference. Some of the would-be delegates sent a letter to the Syrian National Congress, stating their position and asking that they form a Palestinian delegation from Palestinian representatives present in Damascus that would travel directly to Europe to defend the Palestinian case.[10] Shemesh says that there are a number of versions as to its timing and actual occurrence but quotes the memoirs of Izzat Darwaza with a version similar to the preceding.[11]
According to the Survey of Palestine, the delegates met earlier in Damascus on 27 February 1920.[12] Allawai, Faisal's biographer, confirms this date and that while the delegates were assembling in Damascus for the recalled Syrian National Congress, a large number of Palestinians had already gathered in Damascus and organised themselves into the ‘Palestinian Congress’. They posited an independent Palestine within a united Syrian state, denounced Zionism, and demanded an end to Jewish immigration.[13]
On 31 May, Palestinian emigres met at the Arab Club in Damascus and resolved to form 'The Palestinian Arab Society'. The officers of the Society were Haj Amin al-Husseini, Izzat Darwaza and ‘Aref al-‘Aref. The Society protested against the San Remo Conference's decision to grant Britain a mandate over Palestine and against Samuel's appointment. It also appealed to the Muslims of India and to the Pope, drawing attention to the Jewish danger in Palestine. Ilan Pappé says that the second congress was held in secret in Palestine on 31 May 1920, because British military authorities had banned all Arab political gatherings and a statement was issued calling for the return of all political deportees, and to protest against the San Remo Conference decision to include the words of the Balfour Declaration in the text of the British mandate over Palestine. It is unclear if this is the same event, as names given by Pappé are given by other sources as being in Damascus, not Palestine.[14]
Third congress: Haifa, 1920
Third Congress
The third congress opened on 4 December. It was attended by 36 delegates, including Pasha Aref Dajani the Mayor of Jerusalem 1918 (seated fifth from the left next to Pasha Musa Kazem Husseini),[15] Sheik Suleiman al-Taji Al-Faruqi and head of the Catholic community Bullus Shehadeh. The congress was opened by Haifa's mufti, Muhammad Murad. Recently deposed mayor of Jerusalem Musa al-Husayni was elected president and chairman of the nine-member executive committee, a post he held until his death in 1934. It resolved as follows:
Called for Palestine to be part of the independent Arab state promised in the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence. Calls for unity with Syria were dropped but unity between Palestine and Syria re-emerging at a later date was not ruled out.[16][17]
Called on the British to establish "a national government responsible to representative assembly, whose members would be chosen from the Arabic-speaking people who inhabited Palestine until the outbreak of the War" (but without explicitly rejecting British presence in Palestine).[16][18] The model was based on the terms of the Mandate of Iraq, with a parliament elected by a one-citizen-one-vote system, which accepted overall British control.[19][16]
Objected to the recognition of the World Zionist Organization as an official body and the use of Hebrew as an official language.
Opposed Jewish immigration.
Declared the British administration illegal, since the League of Nations had not yet reached a decision about the status of the territory.
Some delegates, such as Issa El-Issa, complained that the congress was not sufficiently radical. After the congress the executive committee met British High Commissioner Herbert Samuel, who insisted that they accept British policy on the Jewish national homeland to receive official recognition. The British position that the congress was not representative led to a broad campaign by the Muslim-Christian Associations to raise public awareness.[20][21]
In March 1921 Musa Kazem led a delegation from the executive committee to meet the British Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill, who had called a conference in Cairo to decide British policy in the Middle East. Churchill agreed to meet the delegation, but refused to discuss any issues until after the conference. On his journey back to London he met with members of the executive committee in Jerusalem on 28 March 1921, telling them they had to accept the Balfour Declaration as an immutable part of British policy.[22]
Fourth congress: Jerusalem, 1921
Fourth congress
The fourth congress, on 25 June 1921, was attended by about 100 delegates who voted to send a six-man delegation (led by Musa Kazim) to London. The delegates arrived in London in September and met with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Winston Churchill. On their way, they met Pope Benedict XV in Vatican City and attempted to meet with delegates to the League of Nations in Geneva. Responding to the congress, High Commissioner Herbert Samuel promised that the British would "never impose a policy contrary to their religions, their political and their economic interests".[23][24][12]
Fifth congress: Nablus, 1922
Fifth congress
The fifth congress opened on 22 August 1922, after the return of the London delegation. Its leader, Musa Kazem, opposed anti-British agitation and discouraged the use of violence; he reported that possibilities still existed for progress through negotiations. The following resolutions were passed:
Rejecting the new constitution.
Boycotting elections for the proposed Legislative Council.
Establishing a London bureau.
Boycotting Jewish goods, including Pinhas Rutenberg's planned electricity supply.
Forbidding land sales to Jews.
Forbidding Jewish immigration.
Pledging to oppose the establishment of a Jewish national homeland.
Before the congress, its executive committee launched a fundraising campaign supporting a general strike held on 13–14 July 1922. Funds were raised from sales of National Movement stamps selling for one, two and five millims. The stamps depicted the Dome of the Rock, with "Palestine for the Arabs" in English and Arabic.[27]
Sixth congress: Jaffa, 1923
Sixth congress
Held from 16 to 20 June 1923, the congress was chaired by Musa Kazim. It was agreed to send another delegation to London, eschewing the more-radical policies which were advocated. A proposed campaign of non-payment of taxes, arguing no taxation without representation, was debated without a decision. Twenty-four resolutions were passed, including boycotts of Pinhas Rutenberg's Palestine Electricity Corporation and Jewish goods.[28] In October, the more-radical National Party was formed in opposition to the Muslim-Christian Associations and the executive committee.[29] The Congress passed a resolution supporting the Arab Orthodox Movement, and recognized the struggle between Arab Orthodox laity and the Greek-dominated Jerusalem Orthodox Patriarchate in broader nationalist terms.[30]
Seventh congress: Jerusalem, 1928
Held on 20 June 1928, the congress formed a short-lived united front with Musa Kazim as president.[31] A 48-member executive committee was elected, which selected an administrative staff consisting of a president, three secretaries and two other members. It was decided to send another delegation, the fourth, to London. It set out on 21 March 1930, after the publication of the Shaw Commission report on the 1929 riots.
A General Islamic Congress was held in Jerusalem in 1931. The delegates were not just Arabs. The World Islamic Congress was convened in Jerusalem in accordance with the charter of the organization of the World Islamic Congress in Mecca in 1926. More about the World Islamic Congress in Mecca (1926) see article World Islamic Congress and the note to the current article.[32] As the influence of the Palestine Congress and its executive committee began to wane, other groups and leaders became active; in particular, the Supreme Muslim Council (and its president, Haj Amin al-Husseini) became involved in anti-Zionist activities. In 1931 Amin Husseini began organizing an international conference of Muslim delegates, political and religious, Sunni and Shia, from around the world to be held in Jerusalem. He obtained permission from retiring High Commissioner John Chancellor, on the condition that the conference did not discuss British policies. On 7 December 1931, 145 delegates from 22 Islamic countries assembled in Jerusalem. Delegates included Abdelaziz Thâalbi (Tunisia), Rida Tawfiq (Turkey), Muhammad Iqbal (India) and delegates from the Wafd (Egypt). Maulana Shaukat Ali (India) helped organize the event. The Indian delegates wanted the restoration of the Caliphate on the agenda, but al-Husseini maintained the focus on Muslim support for Palestinians. Zia'eddin Tabatabaee, former prime minister of Iran, developed plans for the establishment of an Islamic University in Jerusalem, and later traveled in 1933 to Iraq and India with al-Husseini to raise funds for the project.[33][34][35]
The Congress lasted for two weeks, electing an executive committee and proposing the establishment of branches throughout the Muslim world. It affirmed the holiness of the Al-Aqsa mosque (including the Buraq wall) and the importance of Palestine to all Muslims, announcing plans for an Islamic university (the Aqsa Mosque University) and an Islamic land company to prevent Zionists from buying land in Palestine. The final session denounced Western imperialism in Muslim countries.[36]
The conference may be seen as the end of the Palestine Arab Congress. It split the Palestinian national movement by excluding Christians, and was bitterly opposed by Amin al-Husseini's critics. Fakhri al-Nashashibi organized a rival event at the King David Hotel, calling it "The Conference of the Islamic Nation". None of the conference proposals came to fruition, although it consolidated Amin al-Husseini's position as a leader of the Palestinian anti-Zionist movement.[37]
As the congress was ending, a group of about 50 delegates (primarily from Palestine and Syria) met at Awni Abdul Hadi's house and issued an Arab National Charter. This group (and the charter) evolved into the Istiqal Party.[38]
Aftermath
After the death of Musa Kazim on 27 March 1934, Christian executive vice-president Yacoub Farraj became acting president. No agreement could be reached for a permanent successor, and no further Congresses were held. Its role was surpassed by a number of Palestinian Arab political parties representing the interests of particular families and individuals, or identifying with specific locations: the Istiqlal (1932), National Defence Party (1934), Arab Reform Party (1935), National Bloc Party (1935) and the Palestine Arab Party (1935). In 1932 a small group was formed in the Jaffa-Ramleh area, the Palestine Youth Party.[39]
Other Palestinian congresses, 1920–1930
Arab Orthodox Congress: Haifa, 1923
Arab members of the Greek Orthodox Church held a congress in Haifa on 15 July 1923. Many Palestinian members of the Greek Orthodox Church were active in anti-Zionism, particularly as editors and publishers of Falastin and Al-Karmil newspapers (Issa El-Issa and Najib Nassar respectively). The congress was convened after Patriarch Damianus I's sale of land to Zionists for 200,000 Egyptian pounds, a sale which rescued the patriarchate of Jerusalem from bankruptcy. A secondary issue was the patriarch's support for a British-proposed legislative assembly.
The Congress passed a resolution demanding that the patriarch should not speak on behalf of the community without the approval of a mixed council composed of two-thirds lay members and one-third clergy. Other resolutions called for the election of bishops by local councils, knowledge of Arabic by patriarchal representatives, control of church endowments by the Arab community and improvements in Orthodox education and welfare.[40] A second Arab Orthodox conference was held in Jaffa on 28 October 1931.
Mohammed Amin al-Husseini was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and Muslim leader in Mandatory Palestine. Al-Husseini was the scion of the al-Husayni family of Jerusalemite Arab nobles, who trace their origins to the Islamic Prophet Muhammad.
The Churchill White Paper of 3 June 1922 was drafted at the request of Winston Churchill, then Secretary of State for the Colonies, partly in response to the 1921 Jaffa Riots. The official name of the document was Palestine: Correspondence with the Palestine Arab Delegation and the Zionist Organisation. The white paper was made up of nine documents and "Churchill's memorandum" was an enclosure to document number 5. While maintaining Britain's commitment to the Balfour Declaration and its promise of a Jewish national home in Mandatory Palestine, the paper emphasized that the establishment of a national home would not impose a Jewish nationality on the Arab inhabitants of Palestine. To reduce tensions between the Arabs and Jews in Palestine the paper called for a limitation of Jewish immigration to the economic capacity of the country to absorb new arrivals. This limitation was considered a great setback to many in the Zionist movement, though it acknowledged that the Jews should be able to increase their numbers through immigration rather than sufferance.
Faisal Abdel Qader Al-Husseini was a Palestinian politician.
The 1920 Nebi Musa riots or 1920 Jerusalem riots took place in British-controlled part of Occupied Enemy Territory Administration between Sunday, 4 April, and Wednesday, 7 April 1920 in and around the Old City of Jerusalem. Five Jews were killed and several hundred injured; four Arabs were killed, and eighteen injured; 7 Britons were injured. The riots coincided with and are named after the Nebi Musa festival, which was held every year on Easter Sunday, and followed rising tensions in Arab-Jewish relations. The events came shortly after the Battle of Tel Hai and the increasing pressure on Arab nationalists in Syria in the course of the Franco-Syrian War.
Jamal al-Husayni (1894–1982), was born in Jerusalem and was a member of the highly influential and respected Husayni family.
Musa Kazim Pasha al-Husayni held a series of senior posts in the Ottoman administration. He belonged to the prominent al-Husayni family and was mayor of Jerusalem (1918–1920). He was dismissed as mayor by the British authorities and became head of the nationalist Executive Committee of the Palestine Arab Congress from 1922 until 1934. His death was believed to have been caused by injuries received during an anti-British demonstration.
The Independence Party of Palestine was an Arab nationalist political party established on 13 August 1932 in Palestine during the British Mandate. The party was founded by Muhammad Izzat Darwaza, and the other founders of the party were Fahmi al-Abboushi, Mu'in al-Madi, Akram Zu'aytir, ‘Ajaj Nuwayhid, Rashid al-Hajj Ibrahim, Subhi al-Khadra, and Salim Salamah. The party did not achieve a large membership but Awni Abd al-Hadi, through his role as private secretary to Amir Feisal in Damascus between 1918-1920, had good relations with many senior leaders across the Arab World.
Husayni is the name of a prominent Palestinian Arab clan formerly based in Jerusalem, which claims descent from Husayn ibn Ali.
The Palestinian people are an ethnonational group with family origins in the region of Palestine. Since 1964, they have been referred to as Palestinians, but before that they were usually referred to as Palestinian Arabs. During the period of the British Mandate, the term Palestinian was also used to describe the Jewish community living in Palestine.
A general strike of all Arabs in Mandatory Palestine engaged in labour, transport and shopkeeping began on 19 April 1936 and lasted until October 1936; and which degenerated into violence and the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine.
Muhammad 'Izzat Darwazeh was a Palestinian politician, historian, and educator from Nablus. Early in his career, he worked as an Ottoman bureaucrat in Palestine and Lebanon. Darwaza had long been a sympathizer of Arab nationalism and became an activist of that cause following the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire in 1916, joining the nationalist al-Fatat society. As such, he campaigned for the union of Greater Syria and vehemently opposed Zionism and foreign mandates in Arab lands. From 1922 to 1927, he served as an educator and as the principal at the an-Najah National School where he implemented a pro-Arab nationalist educational system, promoting the ideas of Arab independence and unity. Darwaza's particular brand of Arab nationalism was influenced by Islam and his beliefs in Arab unity and the oneness of Arabic culture.
Rashid al-Haj Ibrahim (1889–1953) was a Palestinian Arab banker and a leader of the Independence Party of Palestine (al-Istiqlal). He was one of the most influential Arab leaders of Haifa in the first half of the 20th century and played a leading role in both the 1936–39 Arab revolt and the 1948 Battle of Haifa.
The Arab Congress of 1913 met in a hall of the French Geographical Society at 184 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris from June 18–23 in Paris to discuss more autonomy for the Arab people living under the Ottoman Empire. Furthermore The Arab National Congress, which was established by 25 official Arab Nationalists delegates, was convened to discuss desired reforms and to express their discontent with some Ottoman policies. It took place at a time of uncertainty and change in the Ottoman Empire: in the years leading up to World War I, the Empire had undergone a revolution (1908) and a coup (1913) by the Young Turks, and had been defeated in two wars against Italy and the Balkan states. The Arabs were agitating for more rights under the fading empire and early glimmers of Arab nationalism were emerging. A number of dissenting and reform-oriented groups formed in Greater Syria, Palestine, Constantinople, and Egypt. Under Zionist influence, Jewish immigration to Palestine was increasing, and England and France were expressing interest in the region, competing for spheres of influence.
In 1918, following the British defeat of the Ottoman army and their establishment of a Military Government in Palestine, a number of political clubs called Muslim-Christian Associations were established in all the major towns. They soon formed a national body, the Palestine Arab Congress, which tried to influence the developing British policy in Palestine and counter the influence of the Zionist Commission which visited Palestine in April 1918. The main platform of these groups were:
The London Conference of 1939, or St James's Palace Conference, which took place between 7 February – 17 March 1939, was called by the British Government to plan the future governance of Palestine and an end of the Mandate. It opened on 7 February 1939 in St James's Palace after which the Colonial Secretary, Malcolm MacDonald held a series of separate meetings with the Palestinian and Zionist delegation, because the Palestinian delegation refused to sit in the same room as the Zionist delegation. When MacDonald first announced the proposed conference he made clear that if no agreement was reached the government would impose a solution. The process came to an end after five and a half weeks with the British announcing proposals which were later published as the 1939 White Paper.
Mandatory Palestine was a geopolitical entity that existed between 1920 and 1948 in the region of Palestine under the terms of the League of Nations Mandate for Palestine.
The Arab Higher Committee or the Higher National Committee was the central political organ of Palestinian Arabs in Mandatory Palestine. It was established on 25 April 1936, on the initiative of Haj Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, and comprised the leaders of Palestinian Arab clans and political parties under the mufti's chairmanship. The committee was outlawed by the British Mandatory administration in September 1937 after the assassination of a British official.
This is a timeline of intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine.
Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, also spelled Abdul Qadir al-Husseini, was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and fighter who in late 1933 founded the secret militant group known as the Organization for Holy Struggle, which he and Hasan Salama commanded as the Army of the Holy War during the 1936–1939 Arab revolt and during the 1948 war.
Palestinian nationalism is the national movement of the Palestinian people that espouses self-determination and sovereignty over the region of Palestine. Originally formed in the early 20th century in opposition to Zionism, Palestinian nationalism later internationalized and attached itself to other ideologies; it has thus rejected the occupation of the Palestinian territories by the government of Israel since the 1967 Six-Day War. Palestinian nationalists often draw upon broader political traditions in their ideology, such as Arab socialism and ethnic nationalism in the context of Muslim religious nationalism. Related beliefs have shaped the government of Palestine and continue to do so.
↑ A Survey of Palestine - prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. Reprinted 1991 by The Institute of Palestine Studies, Washington. Volume II. ISBN0-88728-214-8. p.946
↑ Kayyali, Abdul-Wahhab Said (1981) Palestine. A Modern History Croom Helm. ISBN086199-007-2. pp.60-63.
↑ Khalidi, Walid (1984) Before their Diaspora: A photographic history of the Palestinians, 1876-1948. Institute of Palestine Studies. ISBN0-88728-143-5. p.74.
↑ Romanenko, V. S. (Vladislav Stanislavovich). Sotrudnichestvo sovetskoĭ diplomatii i musulmanskogo dukhovenstva SSSR v 20-e gody XX veka: nauchno-istoricheskiĭ ocherk 2005 | Nizhniĭ Novgorod: [NIM "Makhnur"], this monograph is in the library of the British Museum, Oxford University, Harvard University, the University of Chicago, and it published the documents of the World Islamic Congress in Mecca (1926); Romanenko, V.S. (Vladislav Stanislavovich). Evoliutsiya poliki SSSR na Blighnem i Srednem Vostoke v period NEP. Germani, Saarbruecken, Lambert Academic Publishing, 2011. ISBN978-3843320603.
↑ Roussos, Sotiris Patriarchs, Notables and Diplomats. The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem in the Modern Period. from O'Mahony, Anthony (editor) (2004) Eastern Christianity. Studies in Modern History, Religion and Politics. Melisende. ISBN1-901764-23-0.
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