Pannai, Panai or Pane was a Buddhist kingdom located on the east coast of Northern Sumatra that existed between the 11th and 14th centuries.[1] The kingdom was located on the Barumun River and Panai River valleys, in today's Labuhan Batu and South Tapanuli regencies. Because surviving inscriptions and historical records of this period are scarce, the kingdom is among the least known political entities in Indonesian history. Historians suggest that Pannai was probably a principality or a vassal allied under the Srivijayanmandala and later to Dharmasraya kingdom.[2][3][unreliable source?]
The historical records mentioning this kingdom derived from Indian and Javanese sources. The state of Pannai, with river runs through it, was mentioned in the Tanjore inscription dating from the 11th century, as one of the polity sacked by Rajendra Chola I of Chola dynasty during his campaign against the prosperous Srivijaya.[4] Three centuries later, Prapanca confirmed Pannai as one of the Malay states targeted in Majapahit's foreign diplomacy.[5]
Panai among ancient Melayu kingdoms realm.
Despite the lack of local historical records, on the upstream of these rivers however, 16 Buddhist Vajrayana temples were discovered. These temples are known today as the Padanglawas temple compounds, with one specifically known as the Bahal temple. Experts suggest that the existence of the temples is linked to the Kingdom of Pannai. The temples constitute tangible traces of Vajranaya Buddhism in Sumatra.[3]
The state of Pannai, according to Thanjavur inscription found in India, fell after a surprise attack from the rear. Pannai did not suspect an attack from a Chola occupied Srivijaya, the mandala's capital.
Historian suggests, that it is likely that the past Padang Lawas area was more fertile than it is now. Therefore the Panai Kingdom was rich in forest products, especially camphor and livestock, and might also produce gold. Only the rich and prosperous society were able to build temples like Bahal temple complex. In Armenian-language travel records, Indian City Names and Persian Suburbs, Pane is referred to as the port where much high-quality camphor can be found. Camphor originated from two ports, namely Barus on the west coast of Sumatra, and P’anes or P’anis, namely Panai on the east coast.[4]
Buddha Amitabha bronze statue from Pamutung in Padang Lawas. One of a few artifact linked to Pannai Kingdom
The existence of this kingdom was first mentioned in Thanjavur inscription written in Tamil dated from 1025 and 1030. The inscription created by Rajendra Chola I, king of Cholamandala kingdom, Chola Dynasty, in South India, mentioned about Chola invasion of Srivijaya. This inscription mentioned Pannai with its water ponds was among the conquered cities during Rajendra Chola I campaign against Srivijaya.[6]
Other than Pannai, the Chola invasion also claimed Malaiyur, Ilongasogam, Madamalingam, Ilamuri-Desam, and Kadaram. The inclusion of Pannai together with other port cities being invaded during Chola campaign against Srivijaya suggested that Pannai was a member of the Srivijayan mandala.[4]
The only local source mentioning the name Panai is the Panai inscription, discovered by the Biaro Bahal temple complex, in Padang Lawas regency, North Sumatra. The 10th line of the inscription contains the word Panai.[5] There is also a mention of the word kuti in the inscription which probably refer to the Buddhist temple nearby, called as biaro by current local community. The title of haji accompanying the word kuti indicates that there is a small kingdom ruled by a haji or a lesser king, which was posthumously dedicated in the Bahal temple. In other words, historian conclude that Pannai was probably a small kingdom ruled by a king with honorific title Haji, which was the adherent of Buddhism. In ancient Indonesia, the title haji or aji refers to a regional ruler, a lesser king, a vassal, or a subordinate ruler in contrast to the paramount Maharaja (Chakravartin). To date, Panai inscription is the only remaining local primary historical source of the kingdom. Unfortunately much of the writings in this inscription is unreadable due to its poor condition.[5]
Three centuries later, the name of the kingdom reappeared in Javanese source, the Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca from Majapahit Empire dated 1365 (or 1287 Saka year). In Nagarakretagama canto 13, Pane is mentioned as one of Sumatran kingdoms held under Majapahit influence. Javanese overlordship upon Malay states in Sumatra was probably initiated through Singhasari's Pamalayu expedition that pull Malayu Dharmasraya into Singhasari mandala orbit. Therefore, all of Dharmasraya's vassal states were also recruited within Javanese Singhasari mandala. These states includes Palembang, Teba, Kandis, Kahwas, Minangkabau, Siak, Rokan, Kampar, Pane, Kampe, Haru, Mandailing, Tamiyang, Perlak, Padang Lawas, Samudra, Lamuri, Batan, Lampung and Barus, all were under Singhasari influence later inherited by its successor state, Majapahit.
Historical sites
Bahal temple I, in Padang Lawas, North Sumatra. One of the remnants of Pannai Kingdom.
Historians and archaeology experts tried to locate the kingdom mentioned in these historical sources. The similar-sounding names directing them into the estuarine of Panai River and also nearby Barumun River on the east coast of today North Sumatra province, facing Malacca Strait. The toponymy Panai is still can be found toda in several areas in North Sumatra. In Labuhanbatu Regency there are Central Panai District, Panai Hulu District and Panai Hilir District. All three are located on the east coast of Sumatra, close to the Malacca Strait.[5]
In 1846 Franz Junghuhn, a geology expert under Commission of Dutch East Indies authority reported the discovery of temple compound in Padanglawas area, upstream of Barumun River. This vast and empty savanna-like area dotted with Biaro, a local name for temple, obviously derived from Sanskritvihara. These red brick structures — most of them are in ruins — was once the spiritual center of Pannai Kingdom.[7] The most well-preserved temple within this Padanglawas temple compounds is Bahal temple.[8]
Padanglawas area is a dry lowland basin with savanna-like climate. It is unlikely that this area was once support a dense habitation, and probably only used for religious purposes. Although this area is quite accessible by river or land routes, the dry climate of Padanglawas could not support agriculture villages. Therefore, it is suggested that the habitation area of the people that supported Padanglawas culture was located elsewhere. Probably near the estuarine of Barumun and Panai river and not located near these temples.[7] It is suggested that the center of Pannai Kingdom was located in the more fertile area and much closer to maritime trade route of Malacca Strait, which pointing into the estuarine of Panai and Barumun river.
Despite its rich archaeological value, unlike the popular temples of Java, the Padanglawas temples are mostly neglected and in the state of ruins.[1] There are some attempts to promote the temples as a tourism attraction, however because of its remote location and poor infrastructure, promotion and tourism activity is limited.
Other than the temple complex, some archaeological artifact has been discovered in the area. A bronze statue of Buddha Amitabha was found in the main temple of Pamutung, Padang Lawas. This bronze image demonstrate Sri Lankan style, it was presumably imported from Sri Lanka to Sumatra. This is one of a few artifacts linked to the Pannai Kingdom. This statue is now a collection of Tropenmuseum in the Netherlands.
The similarity of names between Pannai kingdom and Panay island in the Philippines has raised some suggestions that the two might be related. This suggestion however, is hard to prove due to lack of historical evidences. According to Visayan legends and epics, the people of the island of Panay and the Visayans of the Philippines, trace their ancestry from the state of Pannai which the island of Panay is said to have been named after.[9] The Visayans themselves being descendants of the Sri-Vijayan datus who refused to bow to the Tamil occupation of Maharajah Rajendra Chola or the Hindu rule of the Rajahs that came thereafter.[9]
Panay island in the Philippines is said to have been named after the state of Pannai,[9] of which Visayan (descendants of Srivijayans) oral legends recount that their 10 Datus or Datuks (in Malay) that transited from Borneo, rebelled against the Rajah named Makatunao.[10] Thus, mirroring the situation in Pannai-proper, which fell under the Hindu Chola dynasty,[9] to whom the Datus of the Visayan legend (Maragtas) refused to bow. Instead of bowing to the Maharajah's and his puppet rajah's domination, these Datus set out to other islands, together with their constituent nobles, soldiers and scholars, and never again to return.[11][9] The Kedatuan of Madja-as may be thus considered as the successor-nation to the Pannai-state, since this previous State itself underwent dissolution after the siege and eventual annexation by the indianized Majapahit Empire.
Pannai was a militant nation allied under the empire-mandala of the Srivijaya that defended the conflict-ridden Strait of Malacca. The small kingdom repulsed any unlicensed Chinese, Indian or Arab navies that often warred in or pirated the straits of Malacca and for a small nation, they were adept at taking down armadas larger than itself. They were successful in policing and defending the straights of Malacca for the Srivijaya until the Chola invasion of Srivijaya occurred, where in a surprise attack from behind, originating from the occupied capital, rendered the militant-state of Pannai vulnerable from an unprotected assault from the back flank. The Chola invaders eventually destroyed the state of Pannai and its surviving soldiers, royals and scholars were said to have been secreted-out eastwards. The high-borne scholars, soldiers and nobles of Pannai, "fled to other islands." Some of whom, now known as Suludnon, settled (and the named the island after Panni) in Panay island in Visayas in Philippines.[12][13] Some historians also affirm the Sumatran origin of the people of Panay, observing that the Visayans derived their writing system from those of Toba, Borneo, Celebes, Ancient Java and from the Edicts of the ancient Indian emperor Ashoka.[14] The very probable proof of Sumatran origin of the Malay settlement in Panay is the account of P. Francisco Colin, S.J, a historian who came to Asia during the early years of the Spanish conquest of the Philippines. The following is his personal observation recorded during his visit to Sumatra:
"In the middle of Sumatra, there is a spacious and extensive lake (presumably Lake Toba near Pannai), around the shore of which many and several ethnic groups settle [and] from where, in the past, there was a forced exodus of inhabitants [constraining them] to sail to and to settle in various islands. One of these ethnic groups was subjugated there and they were unable to flee for various circumstances. Someone speaking Pampango (which I heard before) found out that they were not speaking Pampango among themselves, but they (the Malays of Sumatra) donned the old Pampango ethnic costume. And when he addressed an old man among them, the [old man] replied: You are descendants of the lost, that in times past left this place to settle in other lands, and nothing was heard about them again."
So, Colin concluded that the Tagalogs and Pampangos, and other political or ethnic groups (meaning: Visayans and other relatively civilized groups), by symbols used in expressing language, by color of dress and costume, one can believe that these came from parts of Borneo and Sumatra.[11] There is also religious and linguistic evidence that the people of Panay island are descendants from the people of Pannai in Sumatra as well as the people of Srivijaya ruled Borneo since there are a lot Sanskrit words in the Visayan language[15] Visayans, even people from Panay island, used to refer to their Pre-Christian gods as "Diwatas" which is Hindu-Buddhist in origin. This echoes the culture of Srivijayan Pannai which is a Hindu-Buddhist fusion but albeit leaning more to the Buddhist spectrum.
Srivijaya, also spelled Sri Vijaya, was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra that influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th to 11th century AD. Srivijaya was the first polity to dominate much of western Maritime Southeast Asia. Due to its location, Srivijaya developed complex technology utilizing maritime resources. In addition, its economy became progressively reliant on the booming trade in the region, thus transforming it into a prestige goods-based economy.
Singhasari, also known as Tumapel, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as the dominant kingdom in eastern Java. The kingdom's name is cognate to the Singosari district of Malang Regency, located several kilometres north of Malang City.
A Buddhist temple or Buddhist monastery is the place of worship for Buddhists, the followers of Buddhism. They include the structures called vihara, chaitya, stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions and languages. Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace.
The Shailendra dynasty was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the region. The Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, one of which is the colossal stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Buddhist kingdom located in what is now the Indonesian province of Jambi in Sumatra.
Sri Maharajadiraja Sri Kertanegara Wikrama Dharmatunggadewa, Kritanagara, or Sivabuddha, was the last and most important ruler of the Singhasari kingdom of Java, reigning from 1268 to 1292. Under his rule Javanese trade and power developed considerably, reaching the far corners of the Indonesian archipelago.
Dharmasraya, is the capital of the 11th century Buddhist polity known as Melayu Kingdom, based on the Batanghari river system in modern-day West Sumatra and Jambi, on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. The kingdom itself could be identified by the name of its capital Dharmasraya or by the name Bhumi Malayu or Suvarnnabhumi according to Padang Roco Inscription.
Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by pilgrims and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like the Sailendras and the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes with Indian Vajrayana, Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and Japan, to the extent that it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of "Esoteric Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities saw the growth of Esoteric Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism.
Labuhanbatu Regency, alternatively written in space as Labuhan Batu Regency, is a regency of North Sumatra Province in Indonesia. Its administrative seat is Rantau Prapat. An original regency of the province, it had an area of 9,703 km2 as at early 2008, prior to the separation out of its southern and its north-western districts respectively to create the new South Labuhanbatu and North Labuhanbatu Regencies on 21 July 2008.
The Padang Roco Inscription, in Indonesian Prasasti Padang Roco, is an inscription dated 1286 CE, discovered near the source of Batanghari river, Padangroco temple complex, Nagari Siguntur, Sitiung, Dharmasraya Regency, West Sumatra, Indonesia.
Inscriptions and historical sources assert that the Medieval Chola Emperor Rajendra I sent a naval expedition to Indochina, the Indonesia and Malay Peninsula in 1025 in order to subdue Srivijaya. The Thiruvalangadu plates, the Leyden grant, and the Tamil stele of Rajendra I are the principal sources of information about the campaign.
Candi Bahal, also known as Biaro Bahal or Candi Portibi is Vajrayana Buddhist candi complex in Bahal village, Padang Bolak, Portibi, Padang Lawas Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located about three hours journey with car from Padangsidempuan or 400 km from Medan. The complex includes three candis: Candi Bahal I, Candi Bahal II, and Candi Bahal III. The temple site is linked to Pannai Kingdom circa 11th to 13th century CE.
Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems. Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Bhutan, Thailand, the Sunda Islands, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia, Laos, and Champa. This led to the Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within the Indosphere, Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Mandala.
Dara Petak or Dara Pethak, also known in her formal name as Indreswari, was the consort of King Kertarajasa Jayawardhana, the founder of Majapahit kingdom. She was a Dharmasraya princess from Sumatra and the only non-Javanese wife of Kertarajasa, and also the mother of Jayanegara, the second monarch of Majapahit. Tradition mentioned her as a woman of exceptional beauty.
Dara Jingga, was one of the Malay Dharmasraya princess who was intended to be betrothed to Javanese King Kertanegara of Singasari after the Pamalayu expedition 1275–1293.
In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval raids on Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in India's history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places in present-day Indonesia and Malay Peninsula were invaded by Rajendra I of the Chola dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan invasion led to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with return voyage of the great Bengali Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025 CE.
Mauli was a dynasty of kings that ruled the Bhumi Malayu or Dharmasraya kingdom, centered in the Batanghari river system, from the 11th century to the 14th century. Most Mauli kings were Mahayana—Vajrayana Buddhists.
The archaeology of Indonesia is the study of the archaeology of the archipelagic realm that today forms the nation of Indonesia, stretching from prehistory through almost two millennia of documented history. The ancient Indonesian archipelago was a geographical maritime bridge between the political and cultural centers of Ancient India and Imperial China, and is notable as a part of ancient Maritime Silk Road.
Sri Maharaja Srimat Tribhuwanaraja Mauliwarmadewa was a king of Dharmasraya in Bhumi Malayu (Sumatra), as written on the Padang Roco inscription (1286).
Bumiayu temple compound, or locally known as Candi Bumiayu, is a Sumatran Shivaist Hindu temple complex located near the banks of Lematang river, precisely in Bumiayu village, Tanah Abang district, Penukal Abab Lematang Ilir Regency, South Sumatra, Indonesia. The temple located about 120 kilometres west of Palembang city. The red brick structures are estimated dated from 8th to 13th-century, and linked to the Srivijaya kingdom. Compared to Java, only a few Hindu-Buddhist temple ruins has been rediscovered in Sumatra. The temple is known as one of the few surviving Hindu temple remnant in South Sumatra. Other temple ruins in Sumatra are Muaro Jambi in Jambi, Muara Takus in Riau, and Bahal temple in North Sumatra.
1 2 3 4 Risa Herdahita Putri (16 July 2019). "Misteri Kerajaan Panai di Sumatra". Historia - Majalah Sejarah Populer Pertama di Indonesia (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2019-12-17.
↑ Sastri, K.A.N. (1949). History of Sri Vijaya. University of Madras.
↑ Kuizon, Jose G. (1962). The Sanskrit loan-words in Cebuano-Bisayan language and the Indian elements to Cebuano-Bisayan culture (Thesis). University of San Carlos, Cebu. OCLC3061923.
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