Parenting stress

Last updated
Parent and child personality and pathology factors that contribute to parenting stress. Components of Parenting Stress.png
Parent and child personality and pathology factors that contribute to parenting stress.

Parenting stress relates to stressors that are a function of being in and executing the parenting role. It is a construct that relates to both psychological phenomena and to the human body's physiological state as a parent or caretaker of a child.

Contents

Context

Unlike many stressful situations and events, parenting stressors tend to be long-term, repetitive, and can create chronic stress that manifests both in psychological and physiological ways. Extensive cross-cultural research has found that parenting stress is associated with parenting and child behaviors, various parenting-related cognitions, and the parent's and child's physiological states. Abidin [2] has presented a non-exhaustive model and a measure that attempts to define the major components of parenting stress, and the impact of these stressors on parenting behavior and their child's development. [3] [4] The model concentrates on proximal variables related to the execution of the parenting role: the perceived behavioral characteristics of the child, the parent's self-cognitions, and their perceptions of the familial and friend support available to them. These proximal factors in turn connect with other aspects of the child's and the parent's interpersonal milieu. There are several operational definitions and ways of measuring aspects of parenting stress. [5] Many of these have shown good reliability and criterion validity across a range of different samples, establishing evidence of generalizability. The Parenting Stress Index (PSI), [6] the most widely used measure of parenting stress, has shown associations with a wide range of parenting behaviors and child outcomes and has been used in hundreds of published studies. [7] Since the fourth edition of the PSI has been translated in over 30 languages, [8] cross-cultural replications of the PSI factor structure have been published using normative samples from several countries. Copies of these measures and their test manuals may be obtained from the respective publisher. The goal is to provide a brief overview of the construct of parenting stress for a broader audience, given that the topic is likely to be of interest and importance across a wide range of medical and research contexts. Parenting is a human universal across time and culture, and the construct connects with psychological development, socialization of children, education, health (including when either person in the parent-child dyad experiences other illness or injury), and a wealth of other issues. The overview concludes with links to resources for learning more, or for incorporating measures into other programs of research.

Description

The construct of parenting stress builds on the seminal works of both Selye [9] and Lazarus. [10] Selye demonstrated that a physiological response occurred in the body by phenomenological events like physical environmental stimuli. Although not always maladaptive, the stress in parenting is more likely to be maladaptive, especially when the stress is severe or chronic. Further, he demonstrated that, regardless of the sources of stress, the greater the number of stressors, the larger the body's physiological response. That finding suggested that parenting stress would need to be understood and measured by considering multiple variables. Lazarus articulated the connection of perceptions to emotions and subsequently to both the physiological response and the likely behavioral responses of individuals. Parenting stress thus conceived is not simply a reaction to observable events but the interpretations and other cognitions of the parent relative to the events. The Lazarus model suggests four stages of the stress reaction:

  1. Recognition of an environmental demand,
  2. The perception of the demand in terms of whether it is perceived as a threat,
  3. Whether or not the individual believes they have the resources to cope with the event. This process is instantaneous and is essentially an unconscious response.
  4. Based on stage three, the nervous system responds by either relaxing or preparing to flee or fight.

Thus, the works of Selye and Lazarus provide conceptual frameworks for understanding the links between emotion perception, stress, and coping. Multiple evidence-based measures of parenting stress have been developed. [5]

Research

Kirby Deater-Deckard, in the volume Parenting Stress, presented the first comprehensive articulation of the research on parenting stress concerning the characteristics of parents, the parent-child relationship, and parents' coping behaviors. [11] Since Deater-Deckard's work, there has been a rapid expansion of research documenting the linkage between parenting stress and a wide variety of important issues related to family functioning and child development and behavior. The summary below provides a brief sampling to illustrate the breadth of impact parenting stress has on members of the core family system. It is an illustrative review extracting some examples from a recent more comprehensive review (with its own formal literature review search and extraction process) to concisely introduce a range of topics.

Observed Parenting Behavior

Parenting stress has been demonstrated to be predictive of abusive mother's behavior towards their children during free play and task situations, parents’ verbal harshness, demanding and controlling behaviors, and parents' level of warmth and engagement with their child. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

Child Development and Outcomes

Parents’ level of stress has been found to be predictive of the development of problem behaviors in children, children's aggressiveness, callous-unemotional traits in children, and children's coping competence. [12] [18] [19] [20] [21] Barroso et al. conducted a major review and meta-analysis of the parenting stress literature, which revealed that parenting stress is a major factor with parents coping with their children's behavior. [22] [23]

Child Academic Functioning

Children whose parents exhibit high levels of parenting stress display difficulties in executive functioning, lower levels of academic competence, and other behavioral problems in school. [24] [25] [23] [22]

Physical Health and Physiological Issues

Parenting stress has been associated with elevated cortisol and oxytocin levels both in parents and their children. [24] [26] [23] These are well-established chemical markers of an individual's mental and physical health. Mothers who exhibit high levels of parenting stress also display a failure to care for their own health needs while also overusing pediatric healthcare services for their children. [22] [27] Parenting stress has also been associated with parental brain functioning, epigenetic DNA methylation, and parent-child behavioral synchrony, and brain synchrony. [28] [29] [30]

Compliance with Medical and Psychological Treatment

Parents with elevated stress levels have significantly higher non-compliance rates for their treatment and the medically necessary care of their children. They also are early terminators of psychological treatments for their children. [31] [32] [33]

The Parenting Partner Relationship

The quality of the parents' relationship is a central variable in terms of child outcomes. The level of parenting stress experienced by parenting partners is associated with the child's physical and mental health. [34] [35] [36]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stress (biology)</span> Organisms response to a stressor such as an environmental condition or a stimulus

Stress, whether physiological, biological or psychological, is an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition. Stress is the body's method of reacting to a condition such as a threat, challenge or physical and psychological barrier. There are two hormones that an individual produces during a stressful situation, well known as adrenaline and cortisol. There are two kinds of stress hormone levels. Resting (basal) cortisol levels are normal everyday quantities that are essential for standard functioning. Reactive cortisol levels are increases in cortisol in response to stressors. Stimuli that alter an organism's environment are responded to by multiple systems in the body. In humans and most mammals, the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are the two major systems that respond to stress.

Stress management consists of a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's level of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of improving everyday functioning. Stress produces numerous physical and mental symptoms which vary according to each individual's situational factors. These can include a decline in physical health, such as headaches, chest pain, fatigue, and sleep problems, as well as depression. The process of stress management is named as one of the keys to a happy and successful life in modern society. Life often delivers numerous demands that can be difficult to handle, but stress management provides a number of ways to manage anxiety and maintain overall well-being.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fight-or-flight response</span> Physiological reaction to a perceived threat or harmful event

The fight-or-flight or the fight-flight-freeze-or-fawn is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival. It was first described by Walter Bradford Cannon. His theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the animal for fighting or fleeing. More specifically, the adrenal medulla produces a hormonal cascade that results in the secretion of catecholamines, especially norepinephrine and epinephrine. The hormones estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol, as well as the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, also affect how organisms react to stress. The hormone osteocalcin might also play a part.

Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), also referred to as psychoendoneuroimmunology (PENI) or psychoneuroendocrinoimmunology (PNEI), is the study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the human body. It is a subfield of psychosomatic medicine. PNI takes an interdisciplinary approach, incorporating psychology, neuroscience, immunology, physiology, genetics, pharmacology, molecular biology, psychiatry, behavioral medicine, infectious diseases, endocrinology, and rheumatology.

Coping refers to conscious strategies used to reduce unpleasant emotions. Coping strategies can be cognitions or behaviors and can be individual or social. To cope is to deal with and overcome struggles and difficulties in life. It is a way for people to maintain their mental and emotional well-being. Everybody has ways of handling difficult events that occur in life, and that is what it means to cope. Coping can be healthy and productive, or destructive and unhealthy. It is recommended that an individual cope in ways that will be beneficial and healthy. "Managing your stress well can help you feel better physically and psychologically and it can impact your ability to perform your best."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social support</span> Support systems for individuals

Social support is the perception and actuality that one is cared for, has assistance available from other people, and most popularly, that one is part of a supportive social network. These supportive resources can be emotional, informational, or companionship ; tangible or intangible. Social support can be measured as the perception that one has assistance available, the actual received assistance, or the degree to which a person is integrated in a social network. Support can come from many sources, such as family, friends, pets, neighbors, coworkers, organizations, etc.

Child psychopathology refers to the scientific study of mental disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorder are examples of psychopathology that are typically first diagnosed during childhood. Mental health providers who work with children and adolescents are informed by research in developmental psychology, clinical child psychology, and family systems. Lists of child and adult mental disorders can be found in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Edition (ICD-10), published by the World Health Organization (WHO) and in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). In addition, the Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood is used in assessing mental health and developmental disorders in children up to age five.

Emotional dysregulation is a range of emotional responses that do not lie within a desirable scope of emotive response, considering the stimuli.

The term eustress means "beneficial stress"—either psychological, physical, or biochemical/radiological (hormesis).

Childhood trauma is often described as serious adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Children may go through a range of experiences that classify as psychological trauma; these might include neglect, abandonment, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical abuse, witnessing abuse of a sibling or parent, or having a mentally ill parent. These events have profound psychological, physiological, and sociological impacts and can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being such as unsocial behaviors, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and sleep disturbances. Similarly, children whose mothers have experienced traumatic or stressful events during pregnancy have an increased risk of mental health disorders and other neurodevelopmental disorders.

Chronic stress is the physiological or psychological response induced by a long-term internal or external stressor. The stressor, either physically present or recollected, will produce the same effect and trigger a chronic stress response. There is a wide range of chronic stressors, but most entail relatively prolonged problems, conflicts and threats that people encounter on a daily basis. And several chronic stressors, including "neighbourhood environment, financial strain, interpersonal stress, work stress and caregiving.", have been identified as associated with disease and mortality.

Richard R. Abidin is a noted psychologist who has devoted much of his career to studying the relationships between parents and children. He served as founder and director of School/Clinical Child Psychology Ph.D. Program from 1967 to 1979, served as director of the Institute of Clinical Psychology between 1979 and 1988 and served as director of the Curry Programs in Clinical and School Psychology between the years 1988–1995 at the University of Virginia. Abidin retired in 2003; he is now emeritus professor, lecturer and consultant to Curry Programs in Clinical and School Psychology at the same university.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psychological stress</span> Feeling of strain and pressure

In psychology, stress is a feeling of emotional strain and pressure. Stress is a type of psychological pain. Small amounts of stress may be beneficial, as it can improve athletic performance, motivation and reaction to the environment,Excessive amounts of stress, however, can increase the risk of strokes, heart attacks, ulcers, and mental illnesses such as depression and also aggravation of a pre-existing condition.

Early childhood is a critical period in a child's life that includes ages from conception to five years old. Psychological stress is an inevitable part of life. Human beings can experience stress from an early age. Although stress is a factor for the average human being, it can be a positive or negative molding aspect in a young child's life.

Social stress is stress that stems from one's relationships with others and from the social environment in general. Based on the appraisal theory of emotion, stress arises when a person evaluates a situation as personally relevant and perceives that they do not have the resources to cope or handle the specific situation.

Marriage and health are closely related. Married people experience lower morbidity and mortality across such diverse health threats as cancer, heart attacks, and surgery. There are gender differences in these effects which may be partially due to men's and women's relative status. Most research on marriage and health has focused on heterosexual couples, and more work is needed to clarify the health effects on same-sex marriage. Simply being married, as well as the quality of one's marriage, has been linked to diverse measures of health. Research has examined the social-cognitive, emotional, behavioral and biological processes involved in these links.

Emotional eating, also known as stress eating and emotional overeating, is defined as the "propensity to eat in response to positive and negative emotions". While the term commonly refers to eating as a means of coping with negative emotions, it sometimes include eating for positive emotions, such as overeating when celebrating an event or to enhance an already good mood.

Maternal fetal stress transfer is a physiological phenomenon in which psychosocial stress experienced by a mother during her pregnancy can be transferred to the fetus. Psychosocial stress describes the brain's physiological response to perceived social threat. Because of a link in blood supply between a mother and fetus, it has been found that stress can leave lasting effects on a developing fetus, even before a child is born. According to recent studies, these effects are mainly the result of two particular stress biomarkers circulating in the maternal blood supply: cortisol and catecholamines.

The Shift-and-persist model has emerged in order to account for unintuitive, positive health outcomes in some individuals of low socioeconomic status. A large body of research has previously linked low socioeconomic status to poor physical and mental health outcomes, including early mortality. Low socioeconomic status is hypothesized to get "under the skin" by producing chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, which increases allostatic load, leading to the pathogenesis of chronic disease. However, some individuals of low socioeconomic status do not appear to experience the expected, negative health effects associated with growing up in poverty. To account for this, the Shift-and-Persist Model proposes that, as children, some individuals of low socioeconomic status learn adaptive strategies for regulating their emotions ("shifting") and focusing on their goals ("persisting") in the face of chronic adversity. According to this model, the use of shift-and-persist strategies diminishes the typical negative effects of adversity on health by leading to more adaptive biological, cognitive, and behavioral responses to daily stressors.

Darby Saxbe is a clinical psychologist and professor of psychology at the University of Southern California, who researches stress within the context of relationships.

References

Open Access logo PLoS transparent.svg This article was adapted from the following source under a CC BY 4.0 license (2022) (reviewer reports): Richard Abidin; Logan Smith; Hannah Kim; Eric Youngstrom (21 June 2022). "Parenting stress" (PDF). WikiJournal of Medicine. 9 (1): 3. doi:10.15347/WJM/2022.003. ISSN   2002-4436. Wikidata   Q99676829.

  1. ↑ Kim, Hannah (2019). "Parenting Stress". Open Science Framework. doi:10.17605/osf.io/9cg58.
  2. ↑ Abidin, Richard R. (December 1992). "The Determinants of Parenting Behavior". Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 21 (4): 407–412. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2104_12. ISSN   0047-228X.
  3. ↑ Abidin, Richard R. (1986). Parenting Stress Index : manual (PSI). Pediatric Psychology Press. OCLC   21184758.
  4. ↑ Abidin, Richard R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index: professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources. OCLC   55989316.
  5. 1 2 Holly, Lindsay E.; Fenley, Alicia R.; Kritikos, Tessa K.; Merson, Rachel A.; Abidin, Richard R.; Langer, David A. (2019-09-03). "Evidence-Base Update for Parenting Stress Measures in Clinical Samples". Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 48 (5): 685–705. doi:10.1080/15374416.2019.1639515. ISSN   1537-4416. PMID   31393178. S2CID   199504237.
  6. ↑ Abidin, Richard R. (2012) Parenting Stress Index: 4th Ed. Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. 987654321.
  7. ↑ "Assessment of Parenting Stress and the PSI-4: Supplemental Resources". www.parinc.com. Retrieved 2022-07-13.
  8. ↑ "Parenting Stress Index, 4th Edition | PSI-4". www.parinc.com. Retrieved 2021-05-03.
  9. ↑ Selye, Hans, 1907-1982. (1978). The stress of life (Rev. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN   0070562121. OCLC   3294632.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Lazarus, Richard S. (2006). Stress and emotion : a new synthesis. Springer Pub. Co. ISBN   9780826102614. OCLC   224717677.
  11. ↑ Deater-Deckard, Kirby (2004-08-11). Parenting Stress. Yale University Press. pp. 27–54. doi:10.12987/yale/9780300103939.001.0001. ISBN   9780300103939. S2CID   246111816.
  12. 1 2 Tripp, Gail; Schaughency, Elizabeth A.; Langlands, Robyn; Mouat, Kelly (2007-06-01). "Family Interactions in Children With and Without ADHD". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 16 (3): 385–400. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9093-2. ISSN   1573-2843. S2CID   143394378.
  13. ↑ Wagner, Shannon L.; Cepeda, Ivan; Krieger, Dena; Maggi, Stefania; D’Angiulli, Amedeo; Weinberg, Joanne; Grunau, Ruth E. (2015-09-03). "Higher cortisol is associated with poorer executive functioning in preschool children: The role of parenting stress, parent coping and quality of daycare". Child Neuropsychology. 22 (7): 853–869. doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1080232. ISSN   0929-7049. PMC   4833630 . PMID   26335047.
  14. ↑ Niu, Hua; Liu, Li; Wang, Meifang (May 2018). "Intergenerational transmission of harsh discipline: The moderating role of parenting stress and parent gender". Child Abuse & Neglect. 79: 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.01.017. ISSN   0145-2134. PMID   29407851.
  15. ↑ Feldman, Ruth; Gordon, Ilanit; Zagoory-Sharon, Orna (2010-12-16). "Maternal and paternal plasma, salivary, and urinary oxytocin and parent-infant synchrony: considering stress and affiliation components of human bonding". Developmental Science. 14 (4): 752–761. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01021.x. ISSN   1363-755X. PMID   21676095.
  16. ↑ McKay, Jessamy M.; Pickens, Jeffrey; Stewart, Anne L. (1996-09-01). "Inventoried and observed stress in parent-child interactions". Current Psychology. 15 (3): 223–234. doi:10.1007/BF02686879. ISSN   1936-4733. S2CID   144200782.
  17. ↑ Nelson, J. Ron; Stage, Scott; Duppong-Hurley, Kristin; Synhorst, Lori; Epstein, Michael H. (April 2007). "Risk Factors Predictive of the Problem Behavior of Children at Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders". Exceptional Children. 73 (3): 367–379. doi:10.1177/001440290707300306. ISSN   0014-4029. S2CID   498543.
  18. ↑ Gordon, Chanelle T.; Hinshaw, Stephen P. (2017). "Parenting Stress as a Mediator between Childhood ADHD and Early Adult Female Outcomes". Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 46 (4): 588–599. doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1041595. ISSN   1537-4416. PMC   4670298 . PMID   26042524.
  19. ↑ Cappa, Kimberly A.; Begle, Angela Moreland; Conger, Judith C.; Dumas, Jean E.; Conger, Anthony J. (2011-06-01). "Bidirectional Relationships Between Parenting Stress and Child Coping Competence: Findings From the Pace Study". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 20 (3): 334–342. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9397-0. ISSN   1573-2843. PMC   6639041 . PMID   31320789.
  20. ↑ Joyner, Krystle B.; Silver, Cheryl H.; Stavinoha, Peter L. (2009-04-13). "Relationship Between Parenting Stress and Ratings of Executive Functioning in Children With ADHD". Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment. 27 (6): 452–464. doi:10.1177/0734282909333945. ISSN   0734-2829. S2CID   144050881.
  21. ↑ DeCaro, Jason A.; Worthman, Carol M. (2008). "Return to school accompanied by changing associations between family ecology and cortisol". Developmental Psychobiology. 50 (2): 183–195. doi:10.1002/dev.20255. ISSN   0012-1630. PMID   18286585.
  22. 1 2 3 Raphael, J. L.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, H.; Giardino, A. P. (March 2010). "Parenting stress in US families: implications for paediatric healthcare utilization". Child: Care, Health and Development. 36 (2): 216–224. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2009.01052.x. ISSN   0305-1862. PMID   20047600.
  23. 1 2 3 Barroso, Nicole E.; Mendez, Lucybel; Graziano, Paulo A.; Bagner, Daniel M. (2017-05-29). "Parenting Stress through the Lens of Different Clinical Groups: a Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 46 (3): 449–461. doi:10.1007/s10802-017-0313-6. ISSN   0091-0627. PMC   5725271 . PMID   28555335.
  24. 1 2 Le, Yunying; Fredman, Steffany J.; Feinberg, Mark E. (September 2017). "Parenting stress mediates the association between negative affectivity and harsh parenting: A longitudinal dyadic analysis". Journal of Family Psychology. 31 (6): 679–688. doi:10.1037/fam0000315. ISSN   1939-1293. PMC   5607072 . PMID   28318290. S2CID   25557815.
  25. ↑ Gerson, A. C.; Furth, S. L.; Neu, A. M.; Fivush, B. A. (December 2004). "Assessing associations between medication adherence and potentially modifiable psychosocial variables in pediatric kidney transplant recipients and their families". Pediatric Transplantation. 8 (6): 543–550. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3046.2004.00215.x. ISSN   1397-3142. PMID   15598321. S2CID   41989749.
  26. ↑ Harmeyer, Erin; Ispa, Jean M.; Palermo, Francisco; Carlo, Gustavo (2016). "Predicting self-regulation and vocabulary and academic skills at kindergarten entry: The roles of maternal parenting stress and mother-child closeness". Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 37: 153–164. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.05.001. ISSN   0885-2006.
  27. ↑ Benzies, Karen M.; Harrison, Margaret J.; Magill-Evans, Joyce (March 2004). "Parenting Stress, Marital Quality, and Child Behavior Problems at Age 7 Years". Public Health Nursing. 21 (2): 111–121. doi:10.1111/j.0737-1209.2004.021204.x. ISSN   0737-1209. PMID   14987210.
  28. ↑ Noriuchi, Madoka; Kikuchi, Yoshiaki; Mori, Kumiko; Kamio, Yoko (2019-02-07). "The orbitofrontal cortex modulates parenting stress in the maternal brain". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 1658. Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.1658N. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-38402-9. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   6367346 . PMID   30733605.
  29. ↑ Wright, Michelle L.; Huang, Yunfeng; Hui, Qin; Newhall, Kevin; Crusto, Cindy; Sun, Yan V.; Taylor, Jacquelyn Y. (December 2017). "Parenting stress and DNA methylation among African Americans in the InterGEN Study". Journal of Clinical and Translational Science. 1 (6): 328–333. doi:10.1017/cts.2018.3. ISSN   2059-8661. PMC   5915805 . PMID   29707254. S2CID   13799431.
  30. ↑ Azhari, A.; Leck, W. Q.; Gabrieli, G.; Bizzego, A.; Rigo, P.; Setoh, P.; Bornstein, M. H.; Esposito, G. (2019-08-06). "Parenting Stress Undermines Mother-Child Brain-to-Brain Synchrony: A Hyperscanning Study". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 11407. Bibcode:2019NatSR...911407A. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-47810-4. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   6684640 . PMID   31388049.
  31. ↑ McWey, Lenore; Holtrop, Kendal (2013). "Retention in a parenting intervention for parents involved with the child welfare system". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e635102013-004 . Retrieved 2019-09-19.
  32. ↑ Rostad, Whitney L.; Moreland, Angela D.; Valle, Linda Anne; Chaffin, Mark J. (2017-12-22). "Barriers to Participation in Parenting Programs: The Relationship between Parenting Stress, Perceived Barriers, and Program Completion". Journal of Child and Family Studies. 27 (4): 1264–1274. doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6. ISSN   1062-1024. PMC   5812022 . PMID   29456438.
  33. ↑ Mash, Eric J.; Johnston, Charlotte; Kovitz, Karen (December 1983). "A comparison of the mother-child interactions of physically abused and non-abused children during play and task situations". Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 12 (3): 337–346. doi:10.1080/15374418309533154. ISSN   0047-228X.
  34. ↑ Kanter, Jeremy B.; Proulx, Christine M. (February 2019). "The longitudinal association between maternal parenting stress and spousal supportiveness". Journal of Family Psychology. 33 (1): 121–131. doi:10.1037/fam0000478. ISSN   1939-1293. PMID   30475003. S2CID   53788169.
  35. ↑ Leavitt, Chelom E.; McDaniel, Brandon T.; Maas, Megan K.; Feinberg, Mark E. (2016-04-12). "Parenting Stress and Sexual Satisfaction Among First-Time Parents: A Dyadic Approach". Sex Roles. 76 (5–6): 346–355. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0623-0. ISSN   0360-0025. PMC   5823519 . PMID   29479133.
  36. ↑ Korpa, Terpsichori; Pervanidou, Panagiota; Angeli, Eleni; Apostolakou, Filia; Papanikolaou, Katerina; Papassotiriou, Ioannis; Chrousos, George P.; Kolaitis, Gerasimos (March 2017). "Mothers' parenting stress is associated with salivary cortisol profiles in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder". Stress. 20 (2): 149–158. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1303472. ISSN   1607-8888. PMID   28264636. S2CID   3912827.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.