Phenology

Last updated

Phenology is the study of periodic events in biological life cycles and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors (such as elevation). [1]

Contents

Examples include the date of emergence of leaves and flowers, the first flight of butterflies, the first appearance of migratory birds, the date of leaf colouring and fall in deciduous trees, the dates of egg-laying of birds and amphibia, or the timing of the developmental cycles of temperate-zone honey bee colonies. In the scientific literature on ecology, the term is used more generally to indicate the time frame for any seasonal biological phenomena, including the dates of last appearance (e.g., the seasonal phenology of a species may be from April through September).

Because many such phenomena are very sensitive to small variations in climate, especially to temperature, phenological records can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology, especially in the study of climate change and global warming. For example, viticultural records of grape harvests in Europe have been used to reconstruct a record of summer growing season temperatures going back more than 500 years. [2] [3] In addition to providing a longer historical baseline than instrumental measurements, phenological observations provide high temporal resolution of ongoing changes related to global warming. [4] [5]

Etymology

The word is derived from the Greek φαίνω (phainō), "to show, to bring to light, make to appear" [6] + λόγος ( logos ), amongst others "study, discourse, reasoning" [7] and indicates that phenology has been principally concerned with the dates of first occurrence of biological events in their annual cycle.

The term was first used by Charles François Antoine Morren, a professor of botany at the University of Liège (Belgium). [8] Morren was a student of Adolphe Quetelet. Quetelet made plant phenological observations at the Royal Observatory of Belgium in Brussels. He is considered "one of 19th century trendsetters in these matters." [9] In 1839, he started his first observations and created a network over Belgium and Europe that reached a total of about 80 stations in the period 1840–1870.

Morren participated in 1842 and 1843 in Quetelets 'Observations of Periodical Phenomena' (Observations des Phénomènes périodiques), [10] and at first suggested to mention the observations concerning botanical phenomena "anthochronological observations". That term had already been used in 1840 by Carl Joseph Kreutzer.

On 16 December 1849, Morren used the term 'phenology' for the first time in a public lecture at the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium in Brussels, [11] [12] to describe "the specific science which has the goal to know the manifestation of life ruled by the time." [13]

Four years later, Morren published "Phenological Memories". [14] The term may not have been common in the decades to follow, as in an article in The Zoologist of 1899 describing an ornithological meeting in Sarajevo, where "questions of Phaenology" were discussed, a footnote by the Editor, William Lucas Distant, says: "This word is seldom used, and we have been informed by a very high authority that it may be defined as "Observational Biology", and as applied to birds, as it is here, may be taken to mean the study or science of observations on the appearance of birds". [15]

Records

Historical

Historical day of year for first bloom index (FBI) for the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Kansas (dots) fitted with a local polynomial regression model (loess in red) and a 2 standard error band (blue). Data from William Monahan. First bloom index.png
Historical day of year for first bloom index (FBI) for the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Kansas (dots) fitted with a local polynomial regression model (loess in red) and a 2 standard error band (blue). Data from William Monahan.

Observations of phenological events have provided indications of the progress of the natural calendar since ancient agricultural times. Many cultures have traditional phenological proverbs and sayings which indicate a time for action: "When the sloe tree is white as a sheet, sow your barley whether it be dry or wet" or attempt to forecast future climate: "If oak's before ash, you're in for a splash. If ash before oak, you're in for a soak". But the indications can be pretty unreliable, as an alternative version of the rhyme shows: "If the oak is out before the ash, 'Twill be a summer of wet and splash; If the ash is out before the oak, 'Twill be a summer of fire and smoke." Theoretically, though, these are not mutually exclusive, as one forecasts immediate conditions and one forecasts future conditions.

The North American Bird Phenology Program at USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (PWRC) is in possession of a collection of millions of bird arrival and departure date records for over 870 species across North America, dating between 1880 and 1970. This program, originally started by Wells W. Cooke, involved over 3,000 observers including many notable naturalists of the time. The program ran for 90 years and came to a close in 1970 when other programs starting up at PWRC took precedence. The program was again started in 2009 to digitize the collection of records and now with the help of citizens worldwide, each record is being transcribed into a database which will be publicly accessible for use.

The English naturalists Gilbert White and William Markwick reported the seasonal events of more than 400 plant and animal species, Gilbert White in Selborne, Hampshire and William Markwick in Battle, Sussex over a 25-year period between 1768 and 1793. The data, reported in White's Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne [17] are reported as the earliest and latest dates for each event over 25 years; so annual changes cannot therefore be determined.

In Japan and China the time of blossoming of cherry and peach trees is associated with ancient festivals and some of these dates can be traced back to the eighth century. Such historical records may, in principle, be capable of providing estimates of climate at dates before instrumental records became available. For example, records of the harvest dates of the pinot noir grape in Burgundy have been used in an attempt to reconstruct spring–summer temperatures from 1370 to 2003; [18] [19] the reconstructed values during 1787–2000 have a correlation with Paris instrumental data of about 0.75.

Modern

Great Britain

Robert Marsham, the founding father of modern phenological recording, was a wealthy landowner who kept systematic records of "Indications of spring" on his estate at Stratton Strawless, Norfolk, from 1736. These took the form of dates of the first occurrence of events such as flowering, bud burst, emergence or flight of an insect. Generations of Marsham's family maintained consistent records of the same events or "phenophases" over unprecedentedly long periods of time, eventually ending with the death of Mary Marsham in 1958, so that trends can be observed and related to long-term climate records. The data show significant variation in dates which broadly correspond with warm and cold years. Between 1850 and 1950 a long-term trend of gradual climate warming is observable, and during this same period the Marsham record of oak-leafing dates tended to become earlier. [20]

After 1960 the rate of warming accelerated, and this is mirrored by increasing earliness of oak leafing, recorded in the data collected by Jean Combes in Surrey. Over the past 250 years, the first leafing date of oak appears to have advanced by about 8 days, corresponding to overall warming on the order of 1.5 °C in the same period.

Towards the end of the 19th century the recording of the appearance and development of plants and animals became a national pastime, and between 1891 and 1948 the Royal Meteorological Society (RMS) organised a programme of phenological recording across the British Isles. Up to 600 observers submitted returns in some years, with numbers averaging a few hundred. During this period 11 main plant phenophases were consistently recorded over the 58 years from 1891 to 1948, and a further 14 phenophases were recorded for the 20 years between 1929 and 1948. The returns were summarised each year in the Quarterly Journal of the RMS as The Phenological Reports . Jeffree (1960) summarised the 58 years of data, [21] which show that flowering dates could be as many as 21 days early and as many as 34 days late, with extreme earliness greatest in summer-flowering species, and extreme lateness in spring-flowering species. In all 25 species, the timings of all phenological events are significantly related to temperature, [22] [23] indicating that phenological events are likely to get earlier as climate warms.

The Phenological Reports ended suddenly in 1948 after 58 years, and Britain remained without a national recording scheme for almost 50 years, just at a time when climate change was becoming evident. During this period, individual dedicated observers made important contributions. The naturalist and author Richard Fitter recorded the First Flowering Date (FFD) of 557 species of British flowering plants in Oxfordshire between about 1954 and 1990. Writing in Science in 2002, Richard Fitter and his son Alistair Fitter found that "the average FFD of 385 British plant species has advanced by 4.5 days during the past decade compared with the previous four decades." [24] [25] They note that FFD is sensitive to temperature, as is generally agreed, that "150 to 200 species may be flowering on average 15 days earlier in Britain now than in the very recent past" and that these earlier FFDs will have "profound ecosystem and evolutionary consequences". In Scotland, David Grisenthwaite meticulously recorded the dates he mowed his lawn since 1984. His first cut of the year was 13 days earlier in 2004 than in 1984, and his last cut was 17 days later, providing evidence for an earlier onset of spring and a warmer climate in general. [26] [27] [28]

National recording was resumed by Tim Sparks in 1998 [29] and, from 2000, [30] has been led by citizen science project Nature's Calendar , run by the Woodland Trust and the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology. Latest research shows that oak bud burst has advanced more than 11 days since the 19th century and that resident and migrant birds are unable to keep up with this change. [31]

Continental Europe

In Europe, phenological networks are operated in several countries, e.g. Germany's national meteorological service operates a very dense network with approx. 1200 observers, the majority of them on a voluntary basis. [32] The Pan European Phenology (PEP) project is a database that collects phenological data from European countries. Currently 32 European meteorological services and project partners from across Europe have joined and supplied data. [33]

In Geneva, Switzerland, the opening of the first leaf of an official chestnut tree (a horse chestnut) has been observed and recorded since 1818, thus forming the oldest set of records of phenological events in Switzerland. [34] This task is conducted by the secretary of the Grand Council of Geneva (the local parliament), and the opening of the first leaf is announced publicly as indicating the beginning of the Spring. Data show a trend during the 20th century towards an opening that happens earlier and earlier. [35]

Other countries

There is a USA National Phenology Network in which both professional scientists and lay recorders participate.

Many other countries such as Canada (Alberta Plantwatch and Saskatchewan PlantWatch [36] ), China and Australia [37] [38] also have phenological programs.

In eastern North America, almanacs are traditionally used[ by whom? ] for information on action phenology (in agriculture), taking into account the astronomical positions at the time. William Felker has studied phenology in Ohio, US, since 1973 and now publishes "Poor Will's Almanack", a phenological almanac for farmers (not to be confused with a late 18th-century almanac by the same name).

In the Amazon rainforests of South America, the timing of leaf production and abscission has been linked to rhythms in gross primary production at several sites. [39] [40] Early in their lifespan, leaves reach a peak in their capacity for photosynthesis, [41] and in tropical evergreen forests of some regions of the Amazon basin (particularly regions with long dry seasons), many trees produce more young leaves in the dry season, [42] seasonally increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the forest. [43]

Airborne sensors

NDVI temporal profile for a typical patch of coniferous forest over a period of six years. This temporal profile depicts the growing season every year as well as changes in this profile from year to year due to climatic and other constraints. Data and graph are based on the MODIS sensor standard public vegetation index product. Data archived at the ORNL DAAC , courtesy of Dr. Robert Cook. MODIS NDVI Temporal Profile Conifer.jpg
NDVI temporal profile for a typical patch of coniferous forest over a period of six years. This temporal profile depicts the growing season every year as well as changes in this profile from year to year due to climatic and other constraints. Data and graph are based on the MODIS sensor standard public vegetation index product. Data archived at the ORNL DAAC , courtesy of Dr. Robert Cook.

Recent technological advances in studying the earth from space have resulted in a new field of phenological research that is concerned with observing the phenology of whole ecosystems and stands of vegetation on a global scale using proxy approaches. These methods complement the traditional phenological methods which recorded the first occurrences of individual species and phenophases.

The most successful of these approaches is based on tracking the temporal change of a Vegetation Index (like Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI)). NDVI makes use of the vegetation's typical low reflection in the red (red energy is mostly absorbed by growing plants for Photosynthesis) and strong reflection in the Near Infrared (Infrared energy is mostly reflected by plants due to their cellular structure). Due to its robustness and simplicity, NDVI has become one of the most popular remote sensing based products. Typically, a vegetation index is constructed in such a way that the attenuated reflected sunlight energy (1% to 30% of incident sunlight) is amplified by ratio-ing red and NIR following this equation:

The evolution of the vegetation index through time, depicted by the graph above, exhibits a strong correlation with the typical green vegetation growth stages (emergence, vigor/growth, maturity, and harvest/senescence). These temporal curves are analyzed to extract useful parameters about the vegetation growing season (start of season, end of season, length of growing season, etc.). Other growing season parameters could potentially be extracted, and global maps of any of these growing season parameters could then be constructed and used in all sorts of climatic change studies.

A noteworthy example of the use of remote sensing based phenology is the work of Ranga Myneni [46] from Boston University. This work [47] showed an apparent increase in vegetation productivity that most likely resulted from the increase in temperature and lengthening of the growing season in the boreal forest. [48] Another example based on the MODIS enhanced vegetation index (EVI) reported by Alfredo Huete [49] at the University of Arizona and colleagues showed that the Amazon Rainforest, as opposed to the long-held view of a monotonous growing season or growth only during the wet rainy season, does in fact exhibit growth spurts during the dry season. [50] [51]

However, these phenological parameters are only an approximation of the true biological growth stages. This is mainly due to the limitation of current space-based remote sensing, especially the spatial resolution, and the nature of vegetation index. A pixel in an image does not contain a pure target (like a tree, a shrub, etc.) but contains a mixture of whatever intersected the sensor's field of view.

Phenological mismatch

A picture depicting a hummingbird visiting and pollinating a flower. If the flower blooms too early in the season, or if the humming bird has a delay in migration, this interaction will be lost. A male Broad-tailed Hummingbird visits a scarlet gilia flower at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory in Colorado.tiff
A picture depicting a hummingbird visiting and pollinating a flower. If the flower blooms too early in the season, or if the humming bird has a delay in migration, this interaction will be lost.

Most species, including both plants and animals, interact with one another within ecosystems and habitats, known as biological interactions. [52] These interactions (whether it be plant-plant, animal-animal, predator-prey or plant-animal interactions) can be vital to the success and survival of populations and therefore species.

Many species experience changes in life cycle development, migration or in some other process/behavior at different times in the season than previous patterns depict due to warming temperatures. Phenological mismatches, where interacting species change the timing of regularly repeated phases in their life cycles at different rates, creates a mismatch in interaction timing and therefore negatively harming the interaction. [53] Mismatches can occur in many different biological interactions, including between species in one trophic level (intratrophic interactions) (i.e. plant-plant), between different trophic levels (intertrophic interactions) (i.e. plant-animal) or through creating competition (intraguild interactions). [54] For example, if a plant species blooms its flowers earlier than previous years, but the pollinators that feed on and pollinate this flower do not arrive or grow earlier as well, then a phenological mismatch has occurred. This results in the plant population declining as there are no pollinators to aid in their reproductive success. [55] Another example includes the interaction between plant species, where the presence of one species aids in the pollination of another through attraction of pollinators. However, if these plant species develop at mismatched times, this interaction will be negatively affected and therefore the plant species that relies on the other will be harmed.

Phenological mismatches means the loss of many biological interactions and therefore ecosystem functions are also at risk of being negatively affected or lost all together. Phenological mismatches will effect species and ecosystems food webs, reproduction success, resource availability, population and community dynamics in future generations, and therefore evolutionary processes and overall biodiversity.

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meadow</span> Open habitat vegetated primarily by non-woody plants

A meadow is an open habitat or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non-woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows can occur naturally under favourable conditions, but are often artificially created from cleared shrub or woodland for the production of hay, fodder, or livestock. Meadow habitats, as a group, are characterized as "semi-natural grasslands", meaning that they are largely composed of species native to the region, with only limited human intervention.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant morphology</span> Study of the structure of plants

Phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level. Plant morphology is useful in the visual identification of plants. Recent studies in molecular biology started to investigate the molecular processes involved in determining the conservation and diversification of plant morphologies. In these studies transcriptome conservation patterns were found to mark crucial ontogenetic transitions during the plant life cycle which may result in evolutionary constraints limiting diversification.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extinction risk from climate change</span> Risk of plant or animal species becoming extinct due to climate change

There are several plausible pathways that could lead to an increased extinction risk from climate change. Every plant and animal species has evolved to exist within a certain ecological niche. But climate change leads to changes of temperature and average weather patterns. These changes can push climatic conditions outside of the species' niche, and ultimately render it extinct. Normally, species faced with changing conditions can either adapt in place through microevolution or move to another habitat with suitable conditions. However, the speed of recent climate change is very fast. Due to this rapid change, for example cold-blooded animals may struggle to find a suitable habitat within 50 km of their current location at the end of this century.

<i>Iris pallida</i> Species of flowering plant

Iris pallida, the Dalmatian iris or sweet iris, is a hardy flowering perennial plant of the genus Iris, family Iridaceae. It is native to the Dalmatian coast (Croatia) but widely naturalised elsewhere. It is a member of the subgenus Iris, meaning that it is a bearded iris, and grows from a rhizome. It adapts well to different environments and is used in many different ways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Season creep</span> Phenomenon of seasons slowly changing their timing

In phenology, season creep refers to observed changes in the timing of the seasons, such as earlier indications of spring widely observed in temperate areas across the Northern Hemisphere. Phenological records analyzed by climate scientists have shown significant temporal trends in the observed time of seasonal events, from the end of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century. In Europe, season creep has been associated with the arrival of spring moving up by approximately one week in a recent 30-year period. Other studies have put the rate of season creep measured by plant phenology in the range of 2–3 days per decade advancement in spring, and 0.3–1.6 days per decade delay in autumn, over the past 30–80 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charles François Antoine Morren</span>

Charles François Antoine Morren, was a Belgian botanist and horticulturist, and Director of the Jardin botanique de l’Université de Liège.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity</span>

There is an ongoing decline in plant biodiversity, just like there is ongoing biodiversity loss for many other life forms. One of the causes for this decline is climate change. Environmental conditions play a key role in defining the function and geographic distributions of plants. Therefore, when environmental conditions change, this can result in changes to biodiversity. The effects of climate change on plant biodiversity can be predicted by using various models, for example bioclimatic models.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Tundra Experiment</span> International Collaboration

The International Tundra Experiment (ITEX) is a long-term international collaboration of researchers examining the responses of arctic and alpine plants and ecosystems to climate change. Researchers measure plant responses to standardized, small-scale passive warming, snow manipulations, and nutrient additions. Researchers use small open-top chambers (OTCs) to passively increase mean air temperature by 1-2 °C. The ITEX approach has been validated by tundra responses at the plot level. The network has published meta-analyses on plant phenology, growth, and reproduction, composition and abundance, and carbon flux. The ITEX network consists of more than 50 sites in polar and alpine locations around the world.

The match/mismatch hypothesis (MMH) was first described by David Cushing (1969). The MMH "seeks to explain recruitment variation in a population by means of the relation between its phenology—the timing of seasonal activities such as flowering or breeding - and that of species at the immediate lower level", see Durant et al. (2007). In essence it is a measure of reproductive success due to how well the phenology of the prey overlaps with key periods of predator demand. In ecological studies, a few examples include timing and extent of overlap of avian reproduction with the annual phenology of their primary prey items, the interactions between herring fish reproduction and copepod spawning, the relationship between winter moth egg hatching and the timing of oak bud bursting, and the relationship between herbivore reproductive phenology with pulses in nutrients in vegetation

The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province. There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan's boreal forests that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming, most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions. While studies, as early as 1988 have shown that climate change will affect agriculture, whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars, or crops, is less clear. Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature. The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions, "The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan", in June 2007.

Flowering synchrony is the amount of overlap between flowering periods of plants in their mating season compared to what would be expected to occur randomly under given environmental conditions. A population which is flowering synchronously has more plants flowering at the same time than would be expected to occur randomly. A population which is flowering asynchronously has fewer plants flowering at the same time than would be expected randomly. Flowering synchrony can describe synchrony of flowering periods within a year, across years, and across species in a community. There are fitness benefits and disadvantages to synchronized flowering, and it is a widespread phenomenon across pollination syndromes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leaf flushing</span>

Leaf flushing or leaf out is the production of a flush of new leaves typically produced simultaneously on all branches of a bare plant or tree. Young leaves often have less chlorophyll and the leaf flush may be white or red, the latter due to presence of pigments, particularly anthocyanins. Leaf flushing succeeds leaf fall, and is delayed by winter in the temperate zone or by extreme dryness in the tropics. Leaf fall and leaf flushing in tropical deciduous forests can overlap in some species, called leaf-exchanging species, producing new leaves during the same period when old leaves are shed or almost immediately after. Leaf-flushing may be synchronized among trees of a single species or even across species in an area. In the seasonal tropics, leaf flushing phenology may be influenced by herbivory and water stress.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and invasive species</span> Increase of invasive organisms caused by climate change

Climate change and invasive species refers to the process of the environmental destabilization caused by climate change. This environmental change facilitates the spread of invasive species — species that are not historically found in a certain region, and often bring about a negative impact to that region's native species. This complex relationship is notable because climate change and invasive species are also considered by the USDA to be two of the top four causes of global biodiversity loss.

The Plant Phenology Ontology (PPO) is a collection of OBO Foundry ontologies that facilitate integration of heterogeneous data about seed plant phenology from various sources. These data sources include observations networks, such as the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON), the National Phenology Network (NPN), and the Pan-European Phenology Database (PEP725), remote sensing, herbarium specimens, and citizen science observations. The initial focus during ontology development was to capture phenological data about one plant or a population of plants as observed by a person, and this enabled integration of data across disparate observation network sources. Because phenological scorings vary in their methods and reporting, this allows these data to be aggregated and compared. Changes in plant phenology can be linked to different climate factors depending on the species, such precipitation or growing degree days. Aggregated data about the timing of plant life cycle stages at different places and times can provide information about spatiotemporal patterns within and among species, and potentially offer insight into how plants may change or shift their life cycles in response to climate change. These shifts can have implications for agriculture and various biodiversity research avenues, such as shifts in pollinator and host life cycles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate change and birds</span>

Significant work has gone into analyzing the effects of climate change on birds. Like other animal groups, birds are affected by anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change. The research includes tracking the changes in species' life cycles over decades in response to the changing world, evaluating the role of differing evolutionary pressures and even comparing museum specimens with modern birds to track changes in appearance and body structure. Predictions of range shifts caused by the direct and indirect impacts of climate change on bird species are amongst the most important, as they are crucial for informing animal conservation work, required to minimize extinction risk from climate change.

Urban evolution refers to the heritable genetic changes of populations in response to urban development and anthropogenic activities in urban areas. Urban evolution can be caused by mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, or evolution by natural selection. Biologists have observed evolutionary change in numerous species compared to their rural counterparts on a relatively short timescale.

Allochronic speciation is a form of speciation arising from reproductive isolation that occurs due to a change in breeding time that reduces or eliminates gene flow between two populations of a species. The term allochrony is used to describe the general ecological phenomenon of the differences in phenology that arise between two or more species—speciation caused by allochrony is effectively allochronic speciation.

Nuolja, also known as Njulla, is a field research site in Sweden that stretches across Mt. Njulla. With the mountain to the east, the village of Abisko to the south, and bordering Lake Torneträsk, this is a varied-habitat field site. Mountain birch forests are one of the main appeals of this research site.

Traditional Phenological Knowledge can be seen as a "subset of Indigenous Knowledge". Traditional Phenological Knowledge (TPK) is the knowledge based on traditional observations made by Indigenous Peoples that predict seasonal changes of nature and their immediate environment. This can be useful for the management of naturally occurring phenomenon, as well as "adaptive management" such as fire management. TPK is not a novel practice and has been practised for hundreds of years. TPK encompasses history, observations and Traditional Knowledge(TK) or Indigenous Knowledge (IK). Indigenous Knowledge is flexible and always evolves. It considers the past, present and future of environmental and biological generations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Effects of climate change on biomes</span>

Climate change is altering biomes already now, adversely affecting ecosystems on land and in the ocean. Climate change represents the long-term changes of temperature and average weather patterns. In addition, it leads to a substantial increase in both the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. As a region's climate changes, a change in its flora and fauna follows. For instance, out of 4000 species analyzed by the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, half were found to have shifted their distribution to higher latitudes or elevations in response to climate change.

References

  1. ↑ "Phenology". Merriam-Webster. 2020.
  2. ↑ Meier, Nicole (2007). "Grape Harvest Records as a Proxy for Swiss April to August Temperature Reconstructions" (PDF). Diplomarbeit der Philosophisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Bern (Thesis of Philosophy and Science Faculty of the University of Bern). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-17. Retrieved 2007-12-25. Phenological grape harvest observations in Switzerland over the last 500 years have been used as a proxy indicator for reconstructing past temperature variability.
  3. ↑ Meier, N.; Rutishauser, T.; Luterbacher, J.; Pfister, C.; Wanner, H. (2007). "Grape Harvest Dates as a proxy for Swiss April to August Temperature Reconstructions back to AD 1480". Geophysical Research Letters . 34 (20): L20705. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3420705M. doi: 10.1029/2007GL031381 . S2CID   53598463. Phenological grape harvest observations in Switzerland over the last 500 years have been used as a proxy indicator for reconstructing past temperature variability.
  4. ↑ Menzel, A.; Sparks, T.H.; Estrella, N.; Koch, E.; Aasa, A.; Ahas, R.; Alm-kübler, K.; Bissolli, P.; Braslavská, O.; Briede, A.; et al. (2006). "European phenological response to climate change matches the warming pattern". Global Change Biology. 12 (10): 1969–1976. Bibcode:2006GCBio..12.1969M. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.167.960 . doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01193.x. S2CID   84406339. One of the preferred indicators is phenology, the science of natural recurring events, as their recorded dates provide a high-temporal resolution of ongoing changes.
  5. ↑ Schwartz, M. D.; Ahas, R.; Aasa, A. (2006). "Onset of spring starting earlier across the Northern Hemisphere". Global Change Biology. 12 (2): 343–351. Bibcode:2006GCBio..12..343S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2005.01097.x. S2CID   86329402. SI first leaf dates, measuring change in the start of 'early spring' (roughly the time of shrub budburst and lawn first greening), are getting earlier in nearly all parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The average rate of change over the 1955–2002 period is approximately -1.2 days per decade.
  6. ↑ φαίνω, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  7. ↑ λόγος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  8. ↑ Demaree, G, and T Rutishauser. (2009). "Origins of the Word 'Phenology'". EOS. 90 (34): 291. Bibcode:2009EOSTr..90..291D. doi: 10.1029/2009EO340004 .{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ Demarée, Gaston R.; Chuine, Isabelle (2006). "A Concise History of Phenological Observations at the Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium" (PDF). In Dalezios, Nicolas R.; Tzortzios, Stergios (eds.). HAICTA International Conference on Information Systems in Sustainable Agriculture, Agro-environment and Food Technology (Volos, Greece); vol. 3. S.l.: University of Thessaly. pp. 815–824. OCLC   989158236 . Retrieved 2019-05-22.
  10. ↑ First published: Quetelet, Adolphe (1842). Observations des Phénomènes périodiques. Bruxelles: Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique. OCLC   460607426 ; this publications was followed by yearly publications until 1864. See also: Demarée, Gaston R. (2009). "The Phenological Observations and Networking of Adolphe Quetelet at the Royal Observatory of Brussels" (PDF). Italian Journal of Agrometeorology. 14 (1). Retrieved 2019-05-20.
  11. ↑ Demarée & Rutishauser 2011, p. 756.
  12. ↑ Demarée, Gaston R.; Rutishaler, This (2009). "Origins of the word 'Phenology'". EOS. 90 (34): 291. Bibcode:2009EOSTr..90..291D. doi: 10.1029/2009EO340004 .. See also [www.meteo.be/meteo/download/fr/4224538/pdf/rmi_scpub-1300.pdf for supplementary materials].
  13. ↑ Morren 1849/1851, as cited in Demarée & Rutishauser 2011 , p. 758.
  14. ↑ Morren, Charles (1853). "Souvenirs phénologiques de l'hiver 1852-1853" ("Phenological memories of the winter 1852-1853")". Bulletin de l'Académie royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique (in French). XX (1): 160-186. Retrieved 2019-05-22.
  15. ↑ ’Ornithological meeting at Serajevo, Bosnia,’ in: The Zoologist, Wikisource-logo.svg 4th series, vol 3 (1899), page 511.
  16. ↑ Monahan, William B.; Rosemartin, Alyssa; Gerst, Katharine L.; Fisichelli, Nicholas A.; Ault, Toby; Schwartz, Mark D.; Gross, John E.; Weltzin, Jake F. (2016). "Climate change is advancing spring onset across the U.S. National park system". Ecosphere. 7 (10): e01465. doi: 10.1002/ecs2.1465 . hdl: 10150/622065 .
  17. ↑ White, G (1789) The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne
  18. ↑ Chuine, I.; Yiou, P.; Viovy, N.; Seguin, B.; Daux, V.; Le Roy, Ladurie (2004). "Grape ripening as a past climate indicator" (PDF). Nature. 432 (7015): 289–290. Bibcode:2004Natur.432..289C. doi:10.1038/432289a. PMID   15549085. S2CID   12339440. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-28.
  19. ↑ Keenan, D.J. (2007). "Grape harvest dates are poor indicators of summer warmth" (PDF). Theoretical and Applied Climatology. 87 (1–4): 255–256. Bibcode:2007ThApC..87..255K. doi:10.1007/s00704-006-0197-9. S2CID   120923572.
  20. ↑ Sparks, T.H.; Carey, P.D. (1995). "The responses of species to climate over two centuries: an analysis of the Marsham phenological record, 1736-1947". Journal of Ecology. 83 (2): 321–329. doi:10.2307/2261570. JSTOR   2261570.
  21. ↑ Jeffree, E.P. (1960). "Some long-term means from the Phenological reports (1891–1948) of the Royal Meteorological Society". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 86 (367): 95–103. Bibcode:1960QJRMS..86...95J. doi:10.1002/qj.49708636710.
  22. ↑ Sparks T, Jeffree E, Jeffree C (2000). "An examination of the relationship between flowering times and temperature at the national scale using long-term phenological records from the UK". International Journal of Biometeorology. 44 (2): 82–87. Bibcode:2000IJBm...44...82S. doi:10.1007/s004840000049. PMID   10993562. S2CID   36711195.
  23. ↑ SpringerLink – Abstract
  24. ↑ Fitter A, Fitter R (2002). "Rapid changes in flowering time in British plants". Science. 296 (5573): 1689–1691. Bibcode:2002Sci...296.1689F. doi:10.1126/science.1071617. PMID   12040195. S2CID   24973973.
  25. ↑ Fitter, A. H.; Fitter, R. S. R. (31 May 2002). "Rapid Changes in Flowering Time in British Plants" (PDF). Science. 296 (5573): 1689–91. Bibcode:2002Sci...296.1689F. doi:10.1126/science.1071617. PMID   12040195. S2CID   24973973. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 2010-05-25.
  26. ↑ Clover, Charles (27 August 2005). "Change in climate leads to a month more mowing". Daily Telegraph.
  27. ↑
  28. ↑
  29. ↑ "A brief history of phenology - Nature's Calendar".
  30. ↑ "A brief history of phenology - Nature's Calendar".
  31. ↑ Burgess, Malcolm D.; Smith, Ken W.; Evans, Karl L.; Leech, Dave; Pearce-Higgins, James W.; Branston, Claire J.; Briggs, Kevin; Clark, John R.; du Feu, Chris R.; Lewthwaite, Kate; Nager, Ruedi G.; Sheldon, Ben C.; Smith, Jeremy A.; Whytock, Robin C.; Willis, Stephen G.; Phillimore, Albert B. (23 April 2018). "Tritrophic phenological match–mismatch in space and time" (PDF). Nature Ecology & Evolution. 2 (6): 970–975. doi:10.1038/s41559-018-0543-1. hdl:1893/27121. ISSN   2397-334X. PMID   29686235. S2CID   5040650.
  32. ↑ Kaspar, Frank; Zimmermann, Kirsten; Polte-Rudolf, Christine (2014). "An overview of the phenological observation network and the phenological database of Germany's national meteorological service (Deutscher Wetterdienst)". Adv. Sci. Res. 11 (1): 93–99. Bibcode:2014AdSR...11...93K. doi: 10.5194/asr-11-93-2014 .
  33. ↑ Templ, Barbara; Koch, Elisabeth; Bolmgren, K; Ungersböck, Markus; Paul, Anita; Scheifinger, H; Rutishauser, T; Busto, M; Chmielewski, FM; Hájková, L; Hodzić, S; Kaspar, Frank; Pietragalla, B; Romero-Fresneda, R; Tolvanen, A; Vučetič, V; Zimmermann, Kirsten; Zust, A (2018). "Pan European Phenological database (PEP725): a single point of access for European data". Int. J. Biometeorol. 62 (6): 1109–1113. Bibcode:2018IJBm...62.1109T. doi:10.1007/s00484-018-1512-8. PMID   29455297. S2CID   3379514.
  34. ↑ "Botany in Geneva and the "marronnier de la Treille"". Living traditions in Switzerland, Federal Office of Culture . Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  35. ↑ "Long-term series of phenological observations". MeteoSwiss . Retrieved 11 December 2022.
  36. ↑ Nature Saskatchewan : PlantWatch
  37. ↑ "ClimateWatch". EarthWatch Institute Australia. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
  38. ↑ BioWatch Home Archived July 22, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  39. ↑ Wu, Jin; Albert, Loren P.; Lopes, Aline P.; Restrepo-Coupe, Natalia; Hayek, Matthew; Wiedemann, Kenia T.; Guan, Kaiyu; Stark, Scott C.; Christoffersen, Bradley (2016-02-26). "Leaf development and demography explain photosynthetic seasonality in Amazon evergreen forests" (PDF). Science. 351 (6276): 972–976. Bibcode:2016Sci...351..972W. doi: 10.1126/science.aad5068 . ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   26917771.
  40. ↑ Restrepo-Coupe, Natalia; Da Rocha, Humberto R.; Hutyra, Lucy R.; Da Araujo, Alessandro C.; Borma, Laura S.; Christoffersen, Bradley; Cabral, Osvaldo M.R.; De Camargo, Plinio B.; Cardoso, Fernando L.; Da Costa, Antonio C. Lola; Fitzjarrald, David R.; Goulden, Michael L.; Kruijt, Bart; Maia, Jair M.F.; Malhi, Yadvinder S.; Manzi, Antonio O.; Miller, Scott D.; Nobre, Antonio D.; von Randow, Celso; Sá, Leonardo D. Abreu; Sakai, Ricardo K.; Tota, Julio; Wofsy, Steven C.; Zanchi, Fabricio B.; Saleska, Scott R. (2013-12-15). "What drives the seasonality of photosynthesis across the Amazon basin? A cross-site analysis of eddy flux tower measurements from the Brasil flux network" (PDF). Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. 182–183: 128–144. Bibcode:2013AgFM..182..128R. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2013.04.031. ISSN   0168-1923. S2CID   55021898.
  41. ↑ Flexas, J.; Loreto; Medrano (2012). "Photosynthesis during leaf development and ageing". Terrestrial Photosynthesis in a Changing Environment: A Molecular, Physiological, and Ecological Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 353–372. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139051477.028. ISBN   9781139051477.
  42. ↑ Lopes, Aline Pontes; Nelson, Bruce Walker; Wu, Jin; Graça, Paulo Maurício Lima de Alencastro; Tavares, Julia Valentim; Prohaska, Neill; Martins, Giordane Augusto; Saleska, Scott R. (2016-09-01). "Leaf flush drives dry season green-up of the Central Amazon". Remote Sensing of Environment. 182: 90–98. Bibcode:2016RSEnv.182...90L. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2016.05.009. ISSN   0034-4257.
  43. ↑ Albert, Loren P.; Wu, Jin; Prohaska, Neill; de Camargo, Plinio Barbosa; Huxman, Travis E.; Tribuzy, Edgard S.; Ivanov, Valeriy Y.; Oliveira, Rafael S.; Garcia, Sabrina (2018-03-04). "Age-dependent leaf physiology and consequences for crown-scale carbon uptake during the dry season in an Amazon evergreen forest" (PDF). New Phytologist. 219 (3): 870–884. doi: 10.1111/nph.15056 . ISSN   0028-646X. PMID   29502356. S2CID   3705589.
  44. ↑ Tbrs, Modis Vi Cd-Rom Archived 2006-12-30 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ↑ 49971CU_Txt
  46. ↑ "Welcome to the Climate and Vegetation Research Group, Boston University". Archived from the original on 2016-02-24. Retrieved 2006-12-19.
  47. ↑ Myneni, RB; Keeling, CD; Tucker, CJ; Asrar, G; Nemani, RR (1997). "Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991". Nature. 386 (6626): 698. Bibcode:1997Natur.386..698M. doi:10.1038/386698a0. S2CID   4235679.
  48. ↑ ISI Web of Knowledge [v3.0]
  49. ↑ Tbrs, Modis Vi Cd-Rom Archived 2006-09-15 at the Wayback Machine
  50. ↑ Huete, Alfredo R.; Didan, Kamel; Shimabukuro, Yosio E.; Ratana, Piyachat; Saleska, Scott R.; Hutyra, Lucy R.; Yang, Wenze; Nemani, Ramakrishna R.; Myneni, Ranga (2006). "Amazon rainforests green-up with sunlight in dry season" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (6): L06405. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..33.6405H. doi:10.1029/2005GL025583. S2CID   6230227. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04.
  51. ↑ Lindsey, Rebecca; Robert Simmon (June 30, 2006). "Defying Dry: Amazon Greener in Dry Season than Wet". The Earth Observatory . EOS Project Science Office, NASA Goddard . Retrieved 29 August 2013.
  52. ↑ "Ecological Interactions". Khan Academy. 2020.
  53. ↑ Renner, Susanne S.; Zohner, Constantin M. (2018-11-02). "Climate Change and Phenological Mismatch in Trophic Interactions Among Plants, Insects, and Vertebrates". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 49 (1): 165–182. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062535. ISSN   1543-592X. S2CID   91925822.
  54. ↑ Miller-Rushing, Abraham J.; Høye, Toke Thomas; Inouye, David W.; Post, Eric (2010-10-12). "The effects of phenological mismatches on demography". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 365 (1555): 3177–3186. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0148. ISSN   0962-8436. PMC   2981949 . PMID   20819811.
  55. ↑ Gonsamo, Alemu; Chen, Jing M.; Wu, Chaoyang (2013-07-19). "Citizen Science: linking the recent rapid advances of plant flowering in Canada with climate variability". Scientific Reports. 3 (1): 2239. Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E2239G. doi: 10.1038/srep02239 . ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   3715764 . PMID   23867863.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.