Picture superiority effect

Last updated
Visual Storytelling by Suhani Gowan. Visual-Storytelling.jpg
Visual Storytelling by Suhani Gowan.

The picture superiority effect refers to the phenomenon in which pictures and images are more likely to be remembered than are words. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] This effect has been demonstrated in numerous experiments using different methods. It is based on the notion that "human memory is extremely sensitive to the symbolic modality of presentation of event information". [8] Explanations for the picture superiority effect are not concrete and are still being debated, however an evolutionary explanation is that sight has a long history stretching back millions of years and was crucial to survival in the past, whereas reading is a relatively recent invention, and requires specific cognitive processes, such as decoding symbols and linking them to meaning.

Contents

History

Allan Paivio's dual-coding theory is a basis of picture superiority effect. Paivio claims that pictures have advantages over words with regards to coding and retrieval of stored memory because pictures are coded more easily and can be retrieved from symbolic mode, while the dual coding process using words is more difficult for both coding and retrieval. Another explanation of the higher recall in picture superiority is the higher familiarity or frequency of pictured objects (Asch & Ebenholtz, 1962). [1] According to dual-coding theory (1971, 1986), memory exists either (or both) verbally or through imagery. Concrete concepts presented as pictures are encoded into both systems; however, abstract concepts are recorded only verbally. In psychology, the effect has implications for salience in attribution theory as well as the availability heuristic. It is also relevant to advertising and user interface design.

Paivio – Dual coding theory

Picture stimuli have an advantage over word stimuli because they are dually encoded; they generate a verbal and image code, whereas word stimuli only generate a verbal code. Pictures are likely to generate a verbal label, whereas words are not likely to generate image labels. [4]

Nelson – Sensory semantic theory

Pictures hold two encoding advantages over words. Pictures are perceptually more distinct from one another than are words, thus increasing their chance for retrieval. In experiments when similarity among pictures was high, no picture superiority effect was present. Pictures are also believed to assess meaning more directly than words. Levels of processing theory apply when words and pictures are compared under semantic study instructions (rate the pleasantness of each item), recall is very similar for pictures and words, as both were encoded at deeper levels. [4]

Picture superiority results from superior encoding for pictures over words, which facilitates greater recollection of pictures. [2]

Weldon and Roediger-transfer appropriate processing theories

Greater overlap of processing at study and test result in increased performance. TAP accounts for picture superiority by an interaction of encoding and retrieval. If items are encoded during a semantic task, performance should be higher for a memory test that relies on concepts related to the items for retrieval than a test that relies on perceptual features. [4]

Evidence

This effect has been shown to occur in recognition memory tasks, where items studied as pictures are better remembered than items studied as words, even when targets are presented as words during the test phase. [5] Whether the picture superiority effect influences the familiarity and/or recollection processes, according to the dual-process models, thought to underlie recognition memory is not clear. [2]

In experiments of associative recognition memory, participants studied random concrete word pairs, and line drawing pairs. They had to discriminate between intact and rearranged pairs at test. The picture superiority effect continued to express a strong effect with a greater hit rate for intact picture pairs. This further supports encoding theories [9] More recent research in associative recognition shows support that semantic meaning of nameable pictures is activated faster than that of words, allowing for more meaningful associations between items depicted as pictures to be generated. [10]

Pictures have distinctive features that enable to distinguish pictures from words and such discriminability increase memory ability in comparison with verbal cues (Jenkins, Neale & Deno, 19 [11] 67). Picture Superiority effect was also evident for memory recall during semantic procession (Childers & Houston, 1984 [12] ). Moreover, pictures in pairs or group were better organized in our memory than words thus resulting in superiority in recall (Pavio & Csapo, 1973 [13] ). The picture superiority effect is also present in spatial memory, where locations of items and photographs were remembered better than locations of words. [14]

Critique

The advantage of pictures over words is only evident when visual similarity is a reliable cue; because it takes longer to understand pictures than words (Snodgrass & McCullough, 1986 [15] ). Pictures are only superior to words for list learning because differentiation is easier for pictures (Dominowski & Gadlin, 1968 [16] ). In reverse picture superiority it was observed that learning was much slower when the responses were pictures (Postman, 1978 [17] ). Words produced a faster response than pictures and pictures did not have an advantages of having easier access to semantic memory or superior effect over words for dual-coding theory (Amrhein, McDaniel & Waddill 2002 [18] ). Similarly, studies where response time deadlines have been implemented, the reverse superiority effect was reported. This is related to the dual-process model of familiarity and recollection. When deadlines for the response were short, the process of familiarity was present, along with an increased tendency to recall words over pictures. When response deadlines were longer, the process of recollection was being utilized, and a strong picture superiority effect was present. [19] In addition, equivalent response time was reported for pictures and words for intelligence comparison (Paivio & Marschark, 1980 [20] ). Contrary to the assumption that pictures have faster access to the same semantic code than words do; all semantic information is stored in a single system. The only difference is that pictures and words access different features of the semantic code (te Linde, 1982 [21] ).

With age

Across the lifespan, a gradual development of the picture superiority effect is evident. Some studies have shown that it appears to become more pronounced with age, [5] [6] while others have found that this effect is also observed among younger children (Whitehouse, Mayber, Durkin, 2006 [6] ). However, the major contribution in picture superiority in recognition memory among children was familiarity (Defeyter, Russo & McPartlin, 2009 [5] ). During childhood, specifically among seven-year-olds, the picture superiority effect is lesser in magnitude than in other age groups. [6] This could be due to the lack of inner speech among younger children supporting the dual coding theory of Paivio. In healthy older adults, the picture superiority effect was found to be greater than it was for younger adults, in comparison to recognition for words, which was disadvantaged for older adults. [22] In that regard, seniors can benefit from using pictorial information to retain textual information (Cherry et al., 2008 [23] ). While memory for words is impaired for older adults, pictures help restore their impaired memory and function properly (Ally et al., 2008 [22] ). In addition, older adults have shown the same level of capability for identifying correct items in comparison with young adults when items were accompanied with pictures (Smith, Hunt & Dunlap, 2015). In populations with Alzheimer's disease, and other mild cognitive impairments, the picture superiority effect remains evident. [24] ERP activity indicates that patients with amnesic mild cognitive impairment utilized frontal-lobe based memory processes to support successful recognition for pictures, which was similar to healthy controls, but not for words. [24]

Applications

Proposed model

Dual coding process by Clark and Paivio (1991) Dual coding process.png
Dual coding process by Clark and Paivio (1991)
Proposed Model of Picture Superiority Effect by Sung Eun Park Picture Superiority Effect final.jpg
Proposed Model of Picture Superiority Effect by Sung Eun Park

Direction for future studies

See also

Related Research Articles

Long-term memory (LTM) is the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely. It is defined in contrast to sensory memory, the initial stage, and short-term or working memory, the second stage, which persists for about 18 to 30 seconds. LTM is grouped into two categories known as explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memory is broken down into episodic and semantic memory, while implicit memory includes procedural memory and emotional conditioning.

Source amnesia is the inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge. This branch of amnesia is associated with the malfunctioning of one's explicit memory. It is likely that the disconnect between having the knowledge and remembering the context in which the knowledge was acquired is due to a dissociation between semantic and episodic memory – an individual retains the semantic knowledge, but lacks the episodic knowledge to indicate the context in which the knowledge was gained.

The spacing effect demonstrates that learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out. This effect shows that more information is encoded into long-term memory by spaced study sessions, also known as spaced repetition or spaced presentation, than by massed presentation ("cramming").

Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst. The term was coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus through studies he performed on himself, and refers to the finding that recall accuracy varies as a function of an item's position within a study list. When asked to recall a list of items in any order, people tend to begin recall with the end of the list, recalling those items best. Among earlier list items, the first few items are recalled more frequently than the middle items.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Baddeley's model of working memory</span> Model of human memory

Baddeley's model of working memory is a model of human memory proposed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974, in an attempt to present a more accurate model of primary memory. Working memory splits primary memory into multiple components, rather than considering it to be a single, unified construct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dual-coding theory</span> Theory of cognition

Dual-coding theory is a theory of cognition that suggests that the mind processes information along two different channels; verbal and nonverbal. It was hypothesized by Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario in 1971. In developing this theory, Paivio used the idea that the formation of mental imagery aids learning through the picture superiority effect.

The Levels of Processing model, created by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972, describes memory recall of stimuli as a function of the depth of mental processing. More analysis produce more elaborate and stronger memory than lower levels of processing. Depth of processing falls on a shallow to deep continuum. Shallow processing leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay. Conversely, deep processing results in a more durable memory trace. There are three levels of processing in this model. Structural processing, or visual, is when we remember only the physical quality of the word E.g how the word is spelled and how letters look. Phonemic processing includes remembering the word by the way it sounds. E.G the word tall rhymes with fall. Lastly, we have semantic processing in which we encode the meaning of the word with another word that is similar or has similar meaning. Once the word is perceived, the brain allows for a deeper processing.

Repetition blindness (RB) is a phenomenon observed in rapid serial visual presentation. People are sometimes poor at recognizing when things happen twice. Repetition blindness is the failure to recognize a second happening of a visual display. The two displays are shown sequentially, possibly with other stimuli displays in between. Each display is only shortly shown, usually for about 150 milliseconds. If stimuli are shown in between, RB can occur in a time interval up to 600 milliseconds. Without other stimuli displayed in between the two repeated stimuli, RB only lasts about 250 milliseconds. Repetition blindness tasks usually are words in lists and in sentences. They are called phonologically similar items. There are also pictures, and words that include pictures. An example of this is a picture of the sun and the word sun. The most popular task used to examine repetition blindness is to show words one after another on a screen fast in which participants must recall the words that they saw. This task is known as the rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP). Repetition blindness is present if missing the second word creates an inaccurate sentence. An example of this is "When she spilled the ink there was ink all over.” An RSVP sequence participants will recall seeing "When she spilled the ink there was all over." However, they are missing the second occurrence of "ink". This finding supports that people are "blind" for the second occurrence of a repetitive item in an RSVP series. For example, a subject's chances of correctly reporting both appearances of the word "cat" in the RSVP stream "dog mouse cat elephant cat snake" are lower than their chances of reporting the third and fifth words in the stream "dog mouse cat elephant pig snake".

Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory. Working memory stores information for immediate use or manipulation, which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.

The generation effect is a phenomenon whereby information is better remembered if it is generated from one's own mind rather than simply read. Researchers have struggled to account for why the generated information is better recalled than read information, but no single explanation has been sufficient to explain everything.

Artificial grammar learning (AGL) is a paradigm of study within cognitive psychology and linguistics. Its goal is to investigate the processes that underlie human language learning by testing subjects' ability to learn a made-up grammar in a laboratory setting. It was developed to evaluate the processes of human language learning but has also been utilized to study implicit learning in a more general sense. The area of interest is typically the subjects' ability to detect patterns and statistical regularities during a training phase and then use their new knowledge of those patterns in a testing phase. The testing phase can either use the symbols or sounds used in the training phase or transfer the patterns to another set of symbols or sounds as surface structure.

Allan Urho Paivio was a professor of psychology at the University of Western Ontario and former bodybuilder. He earned his Ph.D. from McGill University in 1959 and taught at the University of Western Ontario from 1963 until his retirement.

Priming is the idea that exposure to one stimulus may influence a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention. The priming effect refers to the positive or negative effect of a rapidly presented stimulus on the processing of a second stimulus that appears shortly after. Generally speaking, the generation of priming effect depends on the existence of some positive or negative relationship between priming and target stimuli. For example, the word nurse might be recognized more quickly following the word doctor than following the word bread. Priming can be perceptual, associative, repetitive, positive, negative, affective, semantic, or conceptual. Priming effects involve word recognition, semantic processing, attention, unconscious processing, and many other issues, and are related to differences in various writing systems. Onset of priming effects can be almost instantaneous.

Recognition memory, a subcategory of explicit memory, is the ability to recognize previously encountered events, objects, or people. When the previously experienced event is reexperienced, this environmental content is matched to stored memory representations, eliciting matching signals. As first established by psychology experiments in the 1970s, recognition memory for pictures is quite remarkable: humans can remember thousands of images at high accuracy after seeing each only once and only for a few seconds.

In psychology, implicit memory is one of the two main types of long-term human memory. It is acquired and used unconsciously, and can affect thoughts and behaviours. One of its most common forms is procedural memory, which allows people to perform certain tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences; for example, remembering how to tie one's shoes or ride a bicycle without consciously thinking about those activities.

The encoding specificity principle is the general principle that matching the encoding contexts of information at recall assists in the retrieval of episodic memories. It provides a framework for understanding how the conditions present while encoding information relate to memory and recall of that information.

Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) is a memory phenomenon where remembering causes forgetting of other information in memory. The phenomenon was first demonstrated in 1994, although the concept of RIF has been previously discussed in the context of retrieval inhibition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bilingual memory</span>

Bilingualism is the regular use of two fluent languages, and bilinguals are those individuals who need and use two languages in their everyday lives. A person's bilingual memories are heavily dependent on the person's fluency, the age the second language was acquired, and high language proficiency to both languages. High proficiency provides mental flexibility across all domains of thought and forces them to adopt strategies that accelerate cognitive development. People who are bilingual integrate and organize the information of two languages, which creates advantages in terms of many cognitive abilities, such as intelligence, creativity, analogical reasoning, classification skills, problem solving, learning strategies, and thinking flexibility.

Sex differences in cognition are widely studied in the current scientific literature. Biological and genetic differences in combination with environment and culture have resulted in the cognitive differences among males and females. Among biological factors, hormones such as testosterone and estrogen may play some role mediating these differences. Among differences of diverse mental and cognitive abilities, the largest or most well known are those relating to spatial abilities, social cognition and verbal skills and abilities.

Cyma Kathryn Van Petten is an American cognitive neuroscientist known for electrophysiological studies of language, memory, and cognition. She is Professor of Psychology at the State University of New York at Binghamton where she directs the Event-Related Potential Lab. Van Petten was recipient of the Early Career Award from the Society for Psychophysiological Research in 1994.

References

  1. 1 2 Asch, Solomon E.; Ebenholtz, Sheldon M. (1962). "The Principle of Associative Symmetry". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 106 (2): 135–163. JSTOR   985378.
  2. 1 2 3 Curran, T.; Doyle, J. (2011). "Picture superiority doubly dissociates the ERP correlates of recollection and familiarity". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 23 (5): 1247–1262. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.708.3705 . doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21464. PMID   20350169. S2CID   6568038.
  3. ↑ Shepard, R.N. (1967). "Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures". Journal of Learning and Verbal Behavior. 6: 156–163. doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(67)80067-7.
  4. 1 2 3 4 McBride, D. M.; Dosher, B.A. (2002). "A comparison of conscious and automatic memory processes for picture and word stimuli: a process dissociation analysis". Consciousness and Cognition. 11 (3): 423–460. doi:10.1016/s1053-8100(02)00007-7. PMID   12435377. S2CID   2813053.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Defetyer, M. A.; Russo, R.; McPartlin, P. L. (2009). "The picture superiority effect in recognition memory: a developmental study using the response signal procedure". Cognitive Development. 24 (3): 265–273. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.05.002.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Whitehouse, A. J.; Maybery, M.T.; Durkin, K. (2006). "The development of the picture-superiority effect". British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 24 (4): 767–773. doi:10.1348/026151005X74153.
  7. 1 2 Ally, B. A.; Gold, C. A.; Budson, A. E. (2009). "The picture superiority effect in patients with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment". Neuropsychologia. 47 (2): 595–598. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.10.010. PMC   2763351 . PMID   18992266.
  8. ↑ Yuille, John C. (2014-05-09). Imagery, Memory and Cognition (PLE: Memory): Essays in Honor of Allan Paivio. Psychology Press. ISBN   9781317685470.
  9. ↑ Hockley, W. E. (2008). "The picture superiority effect in associative recognition". Memory & Cognition. 36 (7): 1351–1359. doi: 10.3758/MC.36.7.1351 . PMID   18927048.
  10. ↑ Hockley, W.E.; Bancroft, T. (2011). "Extensions of the picture superiority effect in associative recognition". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 65 (4): 236–244. doi:10.1037/a0023796. PMID   21728402.
  11. ↑ Jenkins, Joseph R; Neale, Daniel C; Reno, Stanley L (1967). "Differential memory for picture and word stimuli". Journal of Educational Psychology. 58 (5): 303–307. doi:10.1037/h0025025. PMID   6079075.
  12. 1 2 Childers, Terry L; Houston, Michael J (1984). "Conditions for a picture-superiority effect on consumer memory". Journal of Consumer Research. 11 (2): 643. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.486.9741 . doi:10.1086/209001.
  13. ↑ Paivio, Allan; Csapo, Kalman (1973). "Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding?". Cognitive Psychology. 5 (2): 176–206. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7.
  14. ↑ Cattaneo, Z.; Rosen, M.; Vecchi, T.; Pelz, J. B. (2008). "Monitoring eye movements to investigate the picture superiority effect in spatial memory". Perception. 37 (1): 34–49. doi:10.1068/p5623. PMID   18399246. S2CID   30843136.
  15. ↑ Snodgrass, Joan G; McCullough, Brian (1987). "The role of visual similarity in picture categorisation". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 12 (1): 147–154. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.12.1.147. PMID   2949047. S2CID   234873.
  16. ↑ Dominowski, Roger L.; Gadlin, Howard (1968). "Imagery and paired-associate learning". Canadian Journal of Psychology. 22 (5): 336–348. doi:10.1037/h0082774.
  17. ↑ Postman, L. (1978). "Picture-word differences in the acquisition and retention of paired associates". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 4 (2): 146–57. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.2.146. PMID   632757.
  18. ↑ Amrhein, Paul C; McDaniel, Mark; Waddill, Paula (2002). "Revisiting the picture superiority effect in symbolic comparison: Do pictures provide privileged access?". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 28 (5): 843–857. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.5.843. PMID   12219794.
  19. ↑ Boldini, A.; Russo, R.; Punia, S.; Avons, S. E. (2007). "Reversing picture superiority effect: a speed-accuracy trade-off study of recognition memory". Memory & Cognition. 35 (1): 113–123. doi: 10.3758/BF03195948 . PMID   17533886.
  20. ↑ Paivio, Allan; Marschark, Marc (1980). "Comparative judgements of animal intelligence and pleasantness". Memory & Cognition. 8: 39–48. doi: 10.3758/BF03197550 .
  21. ↑ te Linde, John (1982). "Picture-word difference in decision latency: A test of common-coding assumptions". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 8 (6): 584–598. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.8.6.584. PMID   6218223.
  22. 1 2 Ally, B. A.; Waring, J. D.; Beth, E. H.; McKeever, J. D.; Milberg, W. P.; Budson, A. E. (2008). "Aging memory for pictures: using high-density event-related potentials to understand the effect of aging on the picture superiority effect". Neuropsychologia. 46 (2): 679–689. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.011. PMC   2271145 . PMID   17981307.
  23. ↑ Cherry, Katie E; Hawley, Karri S; Jackson, Erin M; Volaufova, Julia; Su, Joseph; Jazwinski, Michal (2008). "Pictorial superiority effects in oldest-old people". Memory. 16 (7): 728–741. doi:10.1080/09658210802215534. PMC   2575043 . PMID   18651263.
  24. 1 2 Ally, B. A.; McKeever, J. D.; Waring, J. D.; Budson, A. E. (2009). "Preserved frontalmemorial processing for pictures in patients with mild cognitive impairment". Neuropsychologia. 47 (10): 2044–2055. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.015. PMC   2724267 . PMID   19467355.
  25. ↑ Eitel, Alexander; Scheiter, Katharina (2015). "Picture or Text First? Explaining Sequence Effects when Learning with Pictures and Text". Educational Psychology Review. 27: 153–180. doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9264-4. S2CID   145364053.
  26. ↑ Salmerón, Ladislao; Baccino, Thierry; Cañas, Jose J; Madrid, Rafael I; Fajardo, Inmaculada (2009). "Do graphical overviews facilitate or hinder comprehension in hyptertext?". Computers & Education. 53 (4): 1308–1319. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.06.013.
  27. ↑ Carpenter, Shana K; Olson, Kellie M (2012). "Are pictures good for learning new vocabulary in a foreign language? Only if you think they are not". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 38 (1): 92–101. doi:10.1037/a0024828. PMID   21787105. S2CID   14999915.
  28. 1 2 Houts, Peter S.; Doak, Cecilia C.; Doak, Leonard G.; Loscalzo, Matthew J. (2006). "The role of pictures in improving health communication: A review of research on attention, comprehension, recall, and adherence". Patient Education and Counseling. 61 (2): 173–190. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2005.05.004. PMID   16122896. S2CID   10527197.
  29. ↑ Leshner, Glenn; Volte, Fred; Bolls, Paul D; Moore, Jensen (2010). "When a fear appeal isn't just a fear appeal: The effects of graphic anti-tobacco messages". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 54 (3): 485–507. doi:10.1080/08838151.2010.498850. S2CID   144001133.
  30. ↑ Percy, Larry; Rossiter, John R (1997). A theory-based approach to pretesting advertising. WD Wells. p. 295.
  31. ↑ Houston, Michael J; Childers, Terry L; Heckler, Susan E (1987). "Picture-word consistency and the elaborative processing of advertisements". Journal of Marketing Research. 24 (4): 359. doi:10.2307/3151383. JSTOR   3151383.
  32. ↑ Pieters, Rik; Wedel, Michel (2004). "Attention Capture and Transfer in Advertising: Brand, Pictorial, and Text-Size Effects". Journal of Marketing. 68 (2): 36–50. doi:10.1509/jmkg.68.2.36.27794. S2CID   15259684.
Sources
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.