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Lovastatin, sold under the brand name Mevacor among others, is a statin medication, to treat high blood cholesterol and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. It use is recommended together with lifestyle changes. It is taken by mouth.
Perforin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRF1 gene and the Prf1 gene in mice.
Sphingomyelin is a type of sphingolipid found in animal cell membranes, especially in the membranous myelin sheath that surrounds some nerve cell axons. It usually consists of phosphocholine and ceramide, or a phosphoethanolamine head group; therefore, sphingomyelins can also be classified as sphingophospholipids. In humans, SPH represents ~85% of all sphingolipids, and typically make up 10–20 mol % of plasma membrane lipids.
Sphingosine (2-amino-4-trans-octadecene-1,3-diol) is an 18-carbon amino alcohol with an unsaturated hydrocarbon chain, which forms a primary part of sphingolipids, a class of cell membrane lipids that include sphingomyelin, an important phospholipid.
Pleurotus ostreatus, the pearl oyster mushroom or tree oyster mushroom, is a common edible mushroom. It was first cultivated in Germany as a subsistence measure during World War I and is now grown commercially around the world for food. It is related to the similarly cultivated king oyster mushroom. Oyster mushrooms can also be used industrially for mycoremediation purposes.
Ceramides are a family of waxy lipid molecules. A ceramide is composed of sphingosine and a fatty acid. Ceramides are found in high concentrations within the cell membrane of eukaryotic cells, since they are component lipids that make up sphingomyelin, one of the major lipids in the lipid bilayer. Contrary to previous assumptions that ceramides and other sphingolipids found in cell membrane were purely supporting structural elements, ceramide can participate in a variety of cellular signaling: examples include regulating differentiation, proliferation, and programmed cell death (PCD) of cells.
Lipid signaling, broadly defined, refers to any biological signaling event involving a lipid messenger that binds a protein target, such as a receptor, kinase or phosphatase, which in turn mediate the effects of these lipids on specific cellular responses. Lipid signaling is thought to be qualitatively different from other classical signaling paradigms because lipids can freely diffuse through membranes One consequence of this is that lipid messengers cannot be stored in vesicles prior to release and so are often biosynthesized "on demand" at their intended site of action. As such, many lipid signaling molecules cannot circulate freely in solution but, rather, exist bound to special carrier proteins in serum.
Sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase is a hydrolase enzyme that is involved in sphingolipid metabolism reactions. SMase is a member of the DNase I superfamily of enzymes and is responsible for breaking sphingomyelin (SM) down into phosphocholine and ceramide. The activation of SMase has been suggested as a major route for the production of ceramide in response to cellular stresses.
Cytolysin refers to the substance secreted by microorganisms, plants or animals that is specifically toxic to individual cells, in many cases causing their dissolution through lysis. Cytolysins that have a specific action for certain cells are named accordingly. For instance, the cytolysins responsible for the destruction of red blood cells, thereby liberating hemoglobins, are named hemolysins, and so on. Cytolysins may be involved in immunity as well as in venoms.
Pore-forming proteins are usually produced by bacteria, and include a number of protein exotoxins but may also be produced by other organisms such as earthworms, who produce lysenin. They are frequently cytotoxic, as they create unregulated pores in the membrane of targeted cells.
Hemolysins or haemolysins are lipids and proteins that cause lysis of red blood cells by destroying their cell membrane. Although the lytic activity of some microbe-derived hemolysins on red blood cells may be of great importance for nutrient acquisition, many hemolysins produced by pathogens do not cause significant destruction of red blood cells during infection. However, hemolysins are often capable of lysing red blood cells in vitro.
The Membrane Attack Complex/Perforin (MACPF) superfamily, sometimes referred to as the MACPF/CDC superfamily, is named after a domain that is common to the membrane attack complex (MAC) proteins of the complement system and perforin (PF). Members of this protein family are pore-forming toxins (PFTs). In eukaryotes, MACPF proteins play a role in immunity and development.
Ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family member 7 also known as alkaline sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase (Alk-SMase) or intestinal alkaline sphingomyelinase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ENPP7 gene.
Pleurotus pulmonarius, commonly known as the Indian Oyster, Italian Oyster, Phoenix Mushroom, or the Lung Oyster, is a mushroom very similar to Pleurotus ostreatus, the pearl oyster, but with a few noticeable differences. The caps of pulmonarius are much paler and smaller than ostreatus and develops more of a stem. P. pulmonarius also prefers warmer weather than ostreatus and will appear later in the summer. Otherwise, the taste and cultivation of the two species is generally described as largely the same. In North America, P. pulmonarius also closely resembles Pleurotus populinus, which is restricted to growing on aspen and cottonwood.
The RTX toxin superfamily is a group of cytolysins and cytotoxins produced by bacteria. There are over 1000 known members with a variety of functions. The RTX family is defined by two common features: characteristic repeats in the toxin protein sequences, and extracellular secretion by the type I secretion systems (T1SS). The name RTX refers to the glycine and aspartate-rich repeats located at the C-terminus of the toxin proteins, which facilitate export by a dedicated T1SS encoded within the rtx operon.
Pleurotus citrinopileatus, the golden oyster mushroom, is an edible gilled fungus. Native to eastern Russia, northern China, and Japan, the golden oyster mushroom is very closely related to P. cornucopiae of Europe, with some authors considering them to be at the rank of subspecies. In far eastern Russia, P. citrinopileatus, they are called iI'mak, is one of the most popular wild edible mushrooms.
The Thiol-activated Cholesterol-dependent Cytolysin(CDC) family is a member of the MACPF superfamily. Cholesterol dependent cytolysins are a family of β-barrel pore-forming exotoxins that are secreted by gram-positive bacteria. CDCs are secreted as water-soluble monomers of 50-70 kDa, that when bound to the target cell, form a circular homo-oligomeric complex containing as many as 40 monomers. Through multiple conformational changes, the β-barrel transmembrane structure is formed and inserted into the target cell membrane. The presence of cholesterol in the target membrane is required for pore formation, though the presence of cholesterol is not required by all CDCs for binding. For example, Intermedilysin secreted by Streptococcus intermedius will bind only to target membranes containing a specific protein receptor, independent of the presence of cholesterol, but cholesterol is required by intermedilysin for pore formation. While the lipid environment of cholesterol in the membrane can affect toxin binding, the exact molecular mechanism that cholesterol regulates the cytolytic activity of the CDC is not fully understood.
In molecular biology, the sea anemone cytotoxic proteins are lethal pore-forming proteins, known collectively as actinoporins, a sub-class of cytolysins. There are several different groups of cytolysins based on their structure and function. This entry represents the most numerous group, the 20kDa highly basic peptides. These cytolysins form cation-selective pores in sphingomyelin-containing membranes. Examples include equinatoxins, sticholysins, magnificalysins, and tenebrosins, which exhibit pore-forming, haemolytic, cytotoxic, and heart stimulatory activities.
Pleurotus cornucopiae is a species of edible fungus in the genus Pleurotus, It is quite similar to the better-known Pleurotus ostreatus, and like that species is cultivated and sold in markets in Europe and China, but it is distinguished because its gills are very decurrent, forming a network on the stem.
Lysenin is a pore-forming toxin (PFT) present in the coelomic fluid of the earthworm Eisenia fetida. Pore-forming toxins are a group of proteins that act as virulence factors of several pathogenic bacteria. Following the general mechanism of action of PFTs lysenin is segregated as a soluble monomer that binds specifically to a membrane receptor, sphingomyelin in the case of lysenin. After attaching to the membrane, the oligomerization begins, resulting in a nonamer on top of membrane, known as a prepore. After a conformational change, which could be triggered by a decrease of pH, the oligomer is inserted into the membrane in the so-called pore state.
References
- ↑ Tomita T, Noguchi K, Mimuro H, Ukaji F, Ito K, Sugawara-Tomita N, Hashimoto Y (June 2004). "Pleurotolysin, a novel sphingomyelin-specific two-component cytolysin from the edible mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus, assembles into a transmembrane pore complex". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (26): 26975–82. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M402676200 . PMID 15084605.
- 1 2 Ota K, Butala M, Viero G, Dalla Serra M, Sepčić K, Maček P (2014-01-01). "Fungal MACPF-like proteins and aegerolysins: bi-component pore-forming proteins?". Sub-Cellular Biochemistry. 80: 271–91. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8881-6_14. PMID 24798017.
- ↑ Sakurai N, Kaneko J, Kamio Y, Tomita T (July 2004). "Cloning, expression, and pore-forming properties of mature and precursor forms of pleurotolysin, a sphingomyelin-specific two-component cytolysin from the edible mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1679 (1): 65–73. doi:10.1016/j.bbaexp.2004.05.002. PMID 15245918.
- ↑ Shibata T, Kudou M, Hoshi Y, Kudo A, Nanashima N, Miyairi K (December 2010). "Isolation and characterization of a novel two-component hemolysin, erylysin A and B, from an edible mushroom, Pleurotus eryngii". Toxicon. 56 (8): 1436–42. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.08.010. PMID 20816689.
- 1 2 Bhat HB, Ishitsuka R, Inaba T, Murate M, Abe M, Makino A, Kohyama-Koganeya A, Nagao K, Kurahashi A, Kishimoto T, Tahara M, Yamano A, Nagamune K, Hirabayashi Y, Juni N, Umeda M, Fujimori F, Nishibori K, Yamaji-Hasegawa A, Greimel P, Kobayashi T (September 2015). "Evaluation of aegerolysins as novel tools to detect and visualize ceramide phosphoethanolamine, a major sphingolipid in invertebrates". FASEB Journal. 29 (9): 3920–34. doi: 10.1096/fj.15-272112 . PMID 26060215.
- ↑ Berne S, Krizaj I, Pohleven F, Turk T, Macek P, Sepcić K (April 2002). "Pleurotus and Agrocybe hemolysins, new proteins hypothetically involved in fungal fruiting". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1570 (3): 153–9. doi:10.1016/s0304-4165(02)00190-3. PMID 12020804.
- ↑ Berne S, Sepcić K, Anderluh G, Turk T, Macek P, Poklar Ulrih N (August 2005). "Effect of pH on the pore forming activity and conformational stability of ostreolysin, a lipid raft-binding protein from the edible mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus". Biochemistry. 44 (33): 11137–47. doi:10.1021/bi051013y. PMID 16101298.
- ↑ Berne S, Lah L, Sepcić K (April 2009). "Aegerolysins: structure, function, and putative biological role". Protein Science. 18 (4): 694–706. doi:10.1002/pro.85. PMC 2762582 . PMID 19309687.
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