Plowboy trope

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The plowboy trope appears in Christian rhetoric and literature in the form of various bucolic, lowly or even unsavoury characters who would benefit from being exposed to Scripture in the vernacular. The plowboy trope is an anti-elitist trope dating back at least 1600 years.

Contents

Appearances

Jerome (386)

The trope starts [1] with St. Jerome's letter eulogizing the region of Bethlehem, where he lived, remarking on how the local popular songs' lyrics were from the Psalms:

in the village of Christ all is rusticity: and, except for the chanting of psalms, silent. Whereever you turn the ploughman holding his plough sings alleluia, the sweaty reaper rouses himself with psalms, and the vine-dresser sings David. These are the songs of this country; these, in the popular phrase, its love ditties: these the shepherd whistles; they arm the tiller. [2]

— Epistle 46

John Chrysostom

St. John Chrysostom (c. 400) invokes a related set of characters who can understand Christ's few and plain words to love God and neighbour:

And these things even to a ploughman, and to a servant, and to a widow woman, and to a very child, and to him that appears to be exceedingly slow of understanding, are all plain to comprehend and easy to learn.

— First Homily on Gospel of Matthew

Amalarius

Amalarius's Liber officialis (c. 830) does not supply a cast of characters, but makes the cantor of the Mass, by analogy, into a ploughman, and so utilizing the trope's the other elements of ploughing, singing and simple sincerity: [3] : 51 

The earth is furrowed as the oxen drag the plough when the cantors, drawing their innermost breath, drag forth a sweet voice and present it to the people. They goad their own hearts, as well as the hearts of others, to tears and the confession of sins, as if laying bare the hidden parts of the earth.

— Liber officialis

Gerard Zerbolt van Zutphen (1393)

Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen was one of the first of the Brothers of the Common Life at Deventer.

Quocumque te verteris, arator stivam tenens allelujah decantat, sudans messor Psalmis se avocat, et curva attondens vitem falce vinitor aliquid Davidicum canit. [4]

Wherever you turn, the plowman holding the sheaf sings hallelujah, the sweating reaper invokes Psalms, and the vinedresser cutting the vine with a crooked sickle sings something Davidic

— De libris teutonicalibus, 2nd appendix

Erasmus of Rotterdam (1516)

The opening exhortation of the first edition of Erasmus' Novum Instrumentum omne pleads for vernacular use of the Gospel texts, especially memorized and vocalized versions, and with an emphasis on women:

I would that the lowliest women read the gospels and the Pauline Epistles. ...would that the farmer sing some portion of them at the plow, and the weaver hum some parts of the them to the movement of the shuttle, the traveler lighten the weariness of the journey with something of this kind, and that the discussions of all Christians would start from these books. [5]

— Paraclecis

This was expanded in the third edition of 1522 (and re-used in Dominican friar, Marmochino, 1638 Italian Bible's preface [6] ):

Some think it offensive to have the sacred books turned into English or French, but the evangelists turned into Greek what Christ spoke in Syriac, nor did the Latins fear to turn the words of Christ into the Roman tongue—that is, to offer them to the promiscuous multitude...Like St. Jerome I think it a great triumph and glory to the cross if it is celebrated by the tongues of all men; if the farmer at the plow sings some of the mystic Psalms, and the weaver sitting at the shuttle often refreshes himself with something from the Gospel. Let the pilot at the rudder hum over a sacred tune, and the matron sitting with gossip or friend at the colander recite something from it. [7]

— Paraclesis

Erasmus combined Jerome and Chrysostom's cast, and added more characters in his Paraphrase of St Matthew (1524):

This was the class from which he chose disciples of the gospel philosophy, not only fishermen and unlettered, but even by nature rather slow to understand, as is apparent from the considerable evidence of the Gospel. ... Let us not keep children from reading the Gospels. ...

Let us reflect on what sort of hearers Christ himself had. Were the not the indiscriminate crowd including the blind, lame, beggers, tax collectors, centurions, craftsmen, women and children? [9] Would he be vexed if he were read by those he wanted to hear him? Indeed, if I have my way, the farmer, the smith, the stone-cutter will read him, prostitutes and pimps will read him, [11] even the Turks will read him. ... They cry that it is an unseemly act if a woman or tanner speaks about Holy Scriptures. But I would rather have some girls speaking about Christ than I would certain teachers. ... the French in French, the English in English, the Germans in German, the Indian in the language of India...

If it be the ploughman guiding his plough, let him chant in his own language the mystic psalms. If it be the weaver sitting at his loom, let him ease his labour by citing in rhythm something from a gospel. For the same let the skipper as he steers his boat give voice. Finally, let a friend or relative recite something from this (paraphrase or gospel) for the matron who sits spinning. [12]

In the same material, Erasmus noted with approval that Jerome encouraged "virgins, wives and widows" to read but spoke against the mangled, unfit interpretations of "the garrulous hag, the delirious old man, the loquacious sophist."

Note the vocal rather than mental emphasis:

I have never said that anyone at all should translate the sacred books into the vernacular, not have I ever myself undertaken such a thing. In fact I frankly confess that it is better for the common people to learn through the spoken voice, viva voce, if a good teacher is available

— Apologia adversus Petrum Sutorem, 1525

A French Carthusian opponent of vernacular translation, Petrus Sutor, in 1524 wrote of the dangers that a woman engrossed in the Scriptures would neglect her domestic duties, and a soldier would be slow to fight. [13] : 385 

William Tyndale (1520s)

The versions attributed to William Tyndale come from a much later report by John Foxe of a squabble at a dinner party. There are various versions in circulation:

I defy the Pope and all his laws: and ... if God spared him life, ere many years he (Tyndale) would cause a boy that drives the plough to know more of the Scripture than he (the Catholic priest) did.

— John Foxe Book 8, Acts and Monuments, 1583, p1101

In the name of God, I defy the Pope and all his laws: and ... if God spare my life, ere many years I will cause the boy that drives the plough to know more of God’s law than either you or the Pope.

— Quarterly Review, 1870

The Tyndale-attributed version maintains the anti-elitist stance, but not characteristic of singing/devotion.

The version attributed to Tyndale combined Erasmus' trope with the English popular image of the pious plowman: a solid peasant [14] and sometimes a religious radical who speaks the plain truth for the poor, godly commons against corrupt elites and hypocritical English clergy. [15] Tyndale, or the story's originator, may also have been referencing a (probably Lollard) Late Middle English or Scots work "The Prayer of the Ploughman" (a ploughman very familiar with Ezekiel) which says "a lewd man may serve God as well as a man of religion; though that the ploughman ne may not have so much silver for his prayer, as men of religion." [16]

Some LDS commentators see Tyndale's purported statement as a prophecy of Joseph Smith, who had been a ploughboy. [17]

Rheims New Testament (1582)

The Douay–Rheims Bible's preface pointed out that when the scriptures (or New Testament, at least) were written and circulated, the books were never in private, uneducated hands and used casually. In place of that anachronism, it posits what some might consider another: the characteristic Catholic emphasis of a liturgy-centred Christian life, [18] in which scripture is experienced through the liturgy (or the Mass or of the Hours):

(You must not imagine that in the primitive church)...the translated bibles into vulgar tongues were in the hands of every husbandman, arbiter, prentice, boies, girles, mistresse, maid, man: that they were sung, played, alleged, of every tinker, taverner, rhymer, minstrel: that they were for table talk, ale benches, for boats and barges. ... No ...The poore ploughman could then in labouring the ground sing the hymnes and psalms either in known or unknown languages as they heard them in the Holy Church, though they could neither read nor know the sense, meaning, and mysteries of the same. [19]

— Preface, Third Edition, Rheims New Testament (1582)

Other uses

The plowboy trope has also been attributed, perhaps in confusion with Tyndale, to John Wycliff [20] and Martin Luther [21]

A 16th-century Catholic controversialist Johann Cochlaeus also weighed in:

... even tailors and shoemakers, yea, even women and ignorant persons who had accepted this new Lutheran gospel, and could read a little German, studied it with the greatest avidity as the fountain of all truth. Some committed it to memory, and carried it about in their bosom. In a few months such people deemed themselves so learned that they were not ashamed to dispute about faith and the gospel not only with Catholic laymen, but even with priests and monks and doctors of divinity. [22]

A modern variant, with a different singing motif, is

In October 1536, at only 42 years of age, Tyndale's one-note voice was silenced as he was tied to the stake, strangled by the executioner, and then consumed in the fire. But because of his vernacular English translation, the song itself swelled into a mighty British chorus of chambermaids, cobblers, and, yes, even plowboys. [23]

In Hilary Mantel's fiction Wolf Hall , her character Thomas Cromwell adopts the antagonistic mode of Tyndale: [24]

"The sheep farmers are grown so great that the little man is knocked off his acres and the plowboy is out of house and home. In a generation these people can learn to read. The plowman can take up a book."

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References

  1. ↑ O'Connell, Patrick F. (December 2020). "Scripture for the Plowboy Revisited : Erasmus, Jerome and the Common Reader". Moreana. 45 (2): 236–241. doi:10.3366/more.2008.45.2.12 . Retrieved 6 June 2023.
  2. ↑ (St Jerome, Epistola 46, 386 A.D., Paula and Eustochium to Marcella, ch 12i) "Jerome - Letter 46". Fourth Century Christianity. Wisconsin Lutheran College. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  3. ↑ chapter 2, Salisbury, Matthew Cheung (2018). Worship in medieval England. Leeds: Arc humanities press. ISBN   9781641891158.
  4. ↑ François, Wim. "Erasmus' Plea for Bible Reading in the Vernacular. The Legacy of the Devotio Moderna?". Lirias. KU Leuven. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  5. ↑ Kloha, Jeffry. "quoted in The Day the Bible Became a Bestseller". Text & Canon Institute. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  6. ↑ Yetzer, Christopher. "The Plowboy and the Ploughman".
  7. ↑ Smith, Preserved (13 February 2018). quoted in Erasmus: A Study of His Life, Ideals and Place in History. ISBN   9781725239395.
  8. ↑ Pabel, Hilmar M. (1995). "Promoting the Business of the Gospel: Erasmus' Contribution to Pastoral Ministry". Erasmus of Rotterdam Society Yearbook. 15 (1): 53–70. doi:10.1163/187492795X00053.
  9. ↑ Erasmus revisited this list in his Ecclesiastes: "The preacher is obliged to minister to the wise and the foolish, to boys and girls, to youths, to men and matrons, to old men and old women, to magistrates and merchants, to sailors and shoemakers, to soldiers and farmers, even to the pimps and prostitutes, for he must serve the high and the low." [8] : 66 
  10. ↑ Blackley Drummond, Robert (1873). Erasmus His Life and Character Vol. 2.
  11. ↑ A squeamish Victorian rendered these as "clowns and mechanics" [10]
  12. ↑ Erasmus, Desiderius (22 March 2008). Collected Works of Erasmus: Paraphrase on Matthew, Volume 45. ISBN   9781442691797 . Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  13. 1 2 Deanesly, Margaret (1920). The Lollard Bible and Other Medieval Bible Versions. Cambridge University Press.
  14. ↑ Margaret Deansly quotes a poem (before 1400), of an (illiterate) ploughman, taught orally by the community, going to his annual confession where the priest had to check his knowledge of the Creed and Gospel:

    In Lenten times the parson him did shrive:
    He said "Sir, canst thou they believe?"
    The ploughman said unto the priest
    "Sir, I believe in Jesu Christ
    which suffered death and harrowed hell,
    as I have heard mine elders tell." [13]

  15. ↑ In the early Tudor period, the play Gentleness and Nobility features a plowman debating a knight and a merchant, about the social disruption of enclosure. Greenberg, Rachel (2012). "From Subject to Earthly Matter: The Plowman's Argument and Popular Discourse in "Gentleness and Nobility"". Early Theatre. 15 (2): 13–42. ISSN   1206-9078. JSTOR   43499624.
  16. ↑ "Foxe75".
  17. ↑ "William Tyndale, John Foxe, and the "Boy That Driveth the Plough"". Religious Studies Center (rsc.byu.edu).
  18. ↑ Cheely, Daniel Joseph Manuel (1 January 2015). Opening the Book of Marwood: English Catholics and Their Bibles in Early Modern Europe. University of Pennsylvania.
  19. ↑ Note: The passage likely is pointing out that the primitive church in most places initially used Koine Greek, even in Latin-speaking areas such as Rome.
  20. ↑ Burrell, David James (1908). "The Lure of the City: a book for young men". Google Books. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  21. ↑ "Luther: Scripture Easily Grasped by "Plowboys"". Biblical Evidence for Catholics. Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  22. ↑ Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910), 6
  23. ↑ Acton, Ed. "The Underground Translator" . Retrieved 2 June 2023.
  24. ↑ Hitchens, Christopher. "The Men who made England, The Atlantic, Mar2010, Vol. 305, Issue 2". eds.p.ebscohost.com.
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