Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros

Last updated
View of the Polyforum PolyforumSiqueiros06.jpg
View of the Polyforum

The Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros is a cultural, political and social facility located in Mexico City as part of the World Trade Center Mexico City. It was designed and decorated by David Alfaro Siqueiros in the 1960s and hosts the largest mural work in the world called La Marcha de la Humanidad. The building has a theatre, galleries and more, but the main focus is the Forum Universal, which contains the interior portion of Siqueiros' mural work. Visitors can experience the mural while standing on a rotating stage, listening to Siqueiros narrate.

Contents

Site

View of the outer wall of the facility PolyforumSiqueiros02.jpg
View of the outer wall of the facility

The Polyforum is a decagon shaped construction with different exhibition spaces that feature David Alfaro Siqueiros’ work. [1] The building is part of a business complex called the World Trade Center Mexico City in the Benito Juárez borough of Mexico City. [2] This complex was designed by architects Joaquín Alvarez, Guillermo Rossel de la Lama and Ramón Mikelajáuregui, and built just outside Parque de la Lama, but the Polyforum was designed and decorated by Siqueiros, who nicknamed it “El coronelazo.” The exterior is in the form of a diamond and the inside has eight sides. [3] The building with its murals is considered to be an “artistic heritage site” for Mexico, registered by the Centro Nacional de Conservación, Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Literatura and Registro del Patrimonio Artístico Mueble. [3] The Polyforum is a multiple event facility dedicated to cultural, political and social events. Its main aspects include a 500-seat theatre, two galleries, offices and the Foro Universal or Universal Forum.

The outside wall was built in 1970 as a way for patron Manuel Suárez to prevent encroachment or destruction of his property. The wall became immediately controversial because although it was built for safety purposes, it obstructed the view of the Polyforum for passersby, thus making it less accessible to the general public. The press allegedly deemed the wall defensive and antisocial, and Siqueiros tried to defend the wall by saying that it was merely an aesthetic extension of the Polyforum itself. Made into a work of art, the inner surface of the wall celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of the Mexican mural movement of which Siqueiros actively participated in with Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and others. The mural prominently features portraits of Rivera and Orozco, as well as Dr. Atl, a key figure in the start of the mural movement, and graphic artists Guadalupe Posada and Leopoldo Mendez. [4]

The Polyforum's exterior, a 2,750 ft. area, features a twelve-faced sculptural mural painting. Each face depicts a different symbolic concept. The twelve concepts depicted are: Destiny, Ecology, Acrobats, Masses, Decalog, Christ, Indigenous Peoples, Dance, Mythology, Mingling of Races, Music, and Atom. The exterior work is meant to serve as a preview of the interior mural, to entice visitors to enter the building, and to make visitors contemplate the complex meanings of the concepts represented. [5]

Political climate

The year 1960 marked the fiftieth year of the Mexican Revolution, and the political situation in Mexico during the 1960s was quite grim. The early 1960s was marked by major control by the Left and attempts to create class equality, but these attempts unfortunately failed. In 1964, the combination of both an economic decline and an announcement that allottable land was near exhaustion led many peasants to revolt. In the late 1960s, the Right gained control, which led to many doctor and student strikes that were received with strong resistance from the government. The most shocking example of the murky political situation in 1960s Mexico happened in the form of the Tlatelolco Massacre on October 2, 1968. [6] During a student demonstration that happened ten days before the Summer Olympics in Mexico City, police and military officers shot into a crowd of unarmed students at Tlatelolco Plaza. The final death toll remains a mystery, but it has been reported that four students died, twenty were wounded, and thousands were beaten, jailed, and disappeared. This event coincided with the intended opening of the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros during the summer of 1968, and demonstrates how turbulent the political climate was in Mexico during the Polyforum's construction. [7]

Mexico 2000

The Polyforum was designed as part of a major redevelopment/improvement project for Mexico City entitled Mexico 2000. Because of an increase in Mexico City's urban population, Mexico 2000 strived to generate income for the city through tourism and services at its decentralized location at Parque de la Lama. In addition to making arts more accessible to people through Siqueiros’ work at the Polyforum, some of the other contributions of Mexico 2000 included underground networks of driveways, closed circuit radio and television broadcasting, a new system of construction called “Tridilosa” that lightened the weight of the building structure as to allow for more rooms to be created, and expedited travel services for tourists coming into the city.
The plaza's major hotel, “El Hotel de Mexico,” is 730 foot high building that was designed to house a large number of tourists. At the time, the hotel was the tallest reinforced concrete and earthquake-resistant building in the world, and featured 1,512 rooms and suites with a variety of dining options. Equally important to tourism as the Polyforum, “El Hotel de Mexico” was built for both functionality and aesthetic pleasure through its architectural grandeur. [8]

The commission

Although the date is rather uncertain, most agree that the initial commission of the Polyforum happened in 1960 before the radical artist Siqueiros was imprisoned for the charges of attacking police, resisting arrest, firing an illegal weapon, and inciting violence. [9] Siqueiros officially accepted the commission from art patron and industrialist Manuel Suárez on September 7, 1964. The first request of Suárez was for a large mural to be housed in Cuernavaca. The location of the mural was then moved to Mexico City in 1966, and now is known as The March of Humanity. The location change to Parque de la Lama was part of Suárez's larger ideas to both draw people away from the urban center and to promote tourism in an effort to boost the suffering Mexican economy. [10]

Creating the Polyforum was a collective act, and required a large team of workers. Several architects, engineers, painters, sculptors, and acoustics experts from all around the world came to work on the massive project. [11] The undertaking was so large that Siqueiros purchased an additional piece of land next to his home and studio in Cuernavaca for his team to complete the project. [12] All of the panels for The March of Humanity were created in Cuernavaca, where Rhode Island School of Design alumni Mark Rogovin worked under Siqueiros. Rogovin attests to the fact that he and a friend were the only U.S. natives to be working on the project, as most of the other members were from Japan, Italy, Argentina, and various other locations around the world. According to Rogovin, Siqueiros was constantly at the studio, putting in long days and making sure that the project was being carried out to his standard. [13] The project was initially to be completed for the 1968 Olympic Games, but due to political and financial complications, the Polyforum was not finished and inaugurated until December 15, 1971. [14]

Forum Universal

The main feature of the complex at Parque de la Lama is the Forum Universal, which contains Siquieros’ mural called La Marcha de la Humanidad (The March of Humanity). The building, which contains four floors and has an area of 134,000 square feet, also contains a theatre, two joined galleries and other facilities. Siqueiros’ mural covers the dome on the top floor, and up to one thousand spectators can stand on the rotating platform beneath the mural. Accompanying the viewing experience, a light and sound program that was designed by Manuel Suárez y Suárez plays to educate the viewers about the mural. The next floor down features a space for local and international art exhibitions. Below this floor is a theater that features various performances, as well as a small shopping area called the Universal Forum Emerging Art Space (EAE). [15] The basement of the Polyforum is an open space that can be used for storage as well as exhibitions. [8]

In 2011, for the 40th anniversary of the structure, the Forum's two art galleries named after Dr. Atl and Mario Orozco Rivera were renovated and merged into one gallery, measuring over 300 square meters. The first served as the site museum with a space of 145 meters squared. Its permanent exhibition consisted of photographs and models and sketches related to the painting of the site's mural. It also contained biographical information in the form of documents and photographs of Manuel Suárez y Suárez, the sponsor of the Polyforum along with that of Siqueiros. The gallery contains a statue of Manuel Suárez y Suárez. [2] The second gallery dedicated to Orozco Rivera measured 169 meters squared and is shows mainly temporary exhibits of painting, sculpture and photography. The new gallery's first exhibition of 2011 was called “My Trend Week," and it was designed to display the works of new artistic talent in architecture as well as graphic, industrial and interior design. [2] The combined space has been tentatively renamed “Espacio de Arte Emergente” (Emerging Art Space) . [2]

La Marcha de la Humanidad (The March of Humanity)

Inside the Polyforum hosts Siqueiros’ largest mural ever to be created, which is fully titled, The March of Humanity on Earth and Toward the Cosmos: Misery and Science. [16] Including the exterior panels, the mural measures 8,700 square meters. [15] Siqueiros described the theme as “Naked people close to the soil, a woman with a child on her lap, and smaller children raising their arms begging for bread. They are hungry, the oldest, doubled over under a bundle of firewood, walks off in search of a livelihood; groups of women running pell-mell knock each other to get a crumb of bread thrown away by others---an unending struggle to solve the basic problem of existence.” [8] The overall theme of the mural is humanity's endless struggle throughout history and the search for a better society. The mural is divided into four main sections: The March of Humanity Towards Bourgeois Democratic Revolution; The March of Humanity to the Revolution of the Future; Peace, Culture, and Harmony; and Science and Technology. [17]

Section One: South Wall: The March of Humanity Towards Bourgeois Democratic Revolution

This section of the mural depicts a revolution before a time of democratic revolution and is characterized by violence and confusion. There are many figures and forms in different positions, suggesting overall chaos. In the center, demagoguery emerges in the form of a clown who is flanked by militaristic figures. Ninety-some figures are pictured in this scene and are compositionally stacked rather than overlapped. The upper register tells a story that begins with two dark-skinned, half-naked men shown with their knees bent. Next to them, two mothers and their several children walking through a barren landscape that features one large, tree-like form in the background. The next figure is an old man who is bent down under a pile of sticks. Next to him is a group of women huddling together who are shown covering their children with shawls. This entire group is shown to be moving toward a white-faced, dancing figure with his arms raised. This figure, who appears as a leader of some sort, is flanked by a group of people who are also raising their arms. The lower register features figures that are larger in scale than those in the upper register. The first form is an abstract, humanoid form that is more difficult to recognize than the figures from the upper register. Following him is a brutalized, black male figure who is shown armless and hanged, swinging from a noose. The next figures are two large, monstrous figures with recognizably human anatomy that are followed by a larger group of marchers that are shown in uniform, carrying spears and rifles. This procession of synchronized marchers closes out the frame. [16]

Section Two: North Wall: The March of Humanity to the Revolution of the Future

This section represents another march toward the revolution of the future, with the ceiling above representing the space race between the Americans and the Soviets.This section represents another march toward the revolution of the future, with the ceiling above representing the space race between the Americans and the Soviets.This section depicts the future as a chaotic and confusing time, and begins with a woman being attacked by a ferocious anthropomorphic beast. Next to the woman, a man chops down a poisonous tree, and across from him, two frightened women scurry across the turbulent landscape. Above these figures is a three-dimensional figure that protrudes from the wall and is representative of metamorphosis. The next scene depicts a large grouping of women next to a large amate tree, which is representative of the new leaders who will aid the development of humanity. Two figures come out of the tree, and seem to be flying into space. In the final scene, a gender ambiguous figure, shown sitting on a rock, points back to the tree to emphasize its importance. The landscape of Section 2 is much more rough and jagged than the landscape in Section 1, suggesting that the future revolution will be a great challenge for humanity to overcome. [18]

Sections Three and Four: East and West Sides: Peace, Culture, and Harmony

This section shows a man offering industrialization to the west, and on the east side, a woman offering culture to humanize society. Converging lines that come out from the wall behind the figures unify the hands of the man and woman. The man in this scene is the leader who emerged from the amate tree in Section 2, and his return with the female suggests that he has successfully mated and created a new race. These two figures have brought the tools necessary to save humanity through starting a new march towards a better future. . [16]

Siqueiros Foundation of the Arts

The Polyforum is a private institution which is supported through its activities and through private donations to the Siqueiros Foundation. The Siqueiros Foundation is run by Siqueiros' niece Anna Siqueiros, based in Los Angeles, and its mission is "Bringing Color into a Concrete World." As a memorial to the deceased David Alfaro Siqueiros, the Siqueiros Foundation strives to empower underprivileged children by providing them with materials and locations to artistically express themselves. [19] In addition, the Siqueiros Foundation preserves a collection of periodicals, audio, video and photography related to the artist, whose digitalization was begun in 2010. This collection consists of 102,908 documents and images with elements such as correspondence with contemporary intellectuals, writers and politicians, including that from the Siquieros was incarcerated in Lecumberri from 1960 to 1964. It also includes 7,000 postcards from Germany alone, and 10,000 photographs of family and 80,000 texts written about the artist. [20]

History

Over its first forty years, the building suffered significant deterioration to its structure and its murals. [3] The deterioration of the mural work is due to environmental factors and the materials Siquieros used to create the piece. In 2011, remodeling work was begun on the facility to mark its fortieth anniversary. [2] Some restoration work had been performed in 2011, but lack of funds has prevented completion. [3]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">David Alfaro Siqueiros</span> Mexican social realist painter (1896–1974)

David Alfaro Siqueiros was a Mexican social realist painter, best known for his large public murals using the latest in equipment, materials and technique. Along with Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco, he was one of the most famous of the "Mexican muralists". He was a member of the Mexican Communist Party, and a Stalinist and supporter of the Soviet Union who led an unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Leon Trotsky in May 1940.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">José Clemente Orozco</span> Mexican artist (1883–1949)

José Clemente Orozco was a Mexican caricaturist and painter, who specialized in political murals that established the Mexican Mural Renaissance together with murals by Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and others. Orozco was the most complex of the Mexican muralists, fond of the theme of human suffering, but less realistic and more fascinated by machines than Rivera. Mostly influenced by Symbolism, he was also a genre painter and lithographer. Between 1922 and 1948, Orozco painted murals in Mexico City, Orizaba, Claremont, California, New York City, Hanover, New Hampshire, Guadalajara, Jalisco, and Jiquilpan, Michoacán. His drawings and paintings are exhibited by the Carrillo Gil Museum in Mexico City, and the Orozco Workshop-Museum in Guadalajara. Orozco was known for being a politically committed artist, and he promoted the political causes of peasants and workers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World Trade Center Mexico City</span> Office and retail complex in Mexico City

The World Trade Center Mexico City, commonly known by its former name, Hotel de México, is a building complex located in the wealthy neighborhood of Colonia Nápoles in central Mexico City. Its most famous and recognizable feature is the 50-story, 207 metres (679 ft) high Torre WTC, the biggest building in the local area. It is the third tallest building in Mexico City when including antenna, and at its roof height, it stands 191 metres (627 ft).

Roberto Guardia Berdecio was a Bolivian-born artist and a significant contributor to the important political and cultural art movement in Mexico during the 1950s and 1960s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mexican muralism</span> 20th-century art movement

Mexican Muralism refers to the art project initially funded by the Mexican government in the immediate wake of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) to depict visions of Mexico's past, present, and future, transforming the walls of many public buildings into didactic scenes designed to reshape Mexicans' understanding of the nation's history. The murals, large artworks painted onto the walls themselves had social, political, and historical messages. Beginning in the 1920s, the muralist project was headed by a group of artists known as "The Big Three" or "The Three Greats". This group was composed of Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros. Although not as prominent as the Big Three, women also created murals in Mexico. From the 1920s to the 1970s, many murals with nationalistic, social and political messages were created in many public settings such as chapels, schools, government buildings, and much more. The popularity of the Mexican muralist project started a tradition which continues to this day in Mexico; a tradition that has had a significant impact in other parts of the Americas, including the United States, where it served as inspiration for the Chicano art movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Luis Arenal Bastar</span> Mexican artist

Luis Arenal Bastar was a Mexican painter, engraver and sculptor. He was a founding member of the Liga de Escritores y Artistas Revolucionarios, the Taller de Gráfica Popular and the Salón de la Plástica Mexicana. In addition, he created murals and other monumental works in Mexico City and Guerrero.

Amado de la Cueva was a Mexican painter. De la Cueva studied in Rome. After his return to Mexico in September 1922, he painted amongst others together with Diego Rivera his murals at the Secretaría de Educación Pública. On October 16, 1923, he returned to his home town, where he painted the murals at Universidad de Guadalajara's assembly hall together with David Alfaro Siqueiros and Carlos Orozco after 1925.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Centro Urbano Benito Juárez</span> Apartment complex in Mexico City, Mexico

The Centro Urbano Benito Juárez, more commonly called the Multifamiliar Juárez, was a large apartment complex built on the southeast section of Colonia Roma, Mexico City in the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was one of several projects of this type by architect Mario Pani, designed to be semi-autonomous and incorporate as much outdoors space as possible. It also featured one of the largest mural works of the 20th century by artist Carlos Mérida. Most of the complex, and the mural work with it, were destroyed by the 1985 Mexico City earthquake and the demolition of many of the damaged buildings. Only a few of the original buildings still remain. Despite this, the Cuauhtémoc borough in which it is located still lists it as a separate colonia or neighborhood.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leopoldo Méndez</span>

Leopoldo Méndez was one of Mexico's most important graphic artists and one of that country's most important artists from the 20th century. Méndez's work mostly focused on engraving for illustrations and other print work generally connected to his political and social activism. His most influential work was connected to organizations such as the Liga de Escritores y Artistas Revolucionarios and the Taller de Gráfica Popular creating propaganda related to the ideals of the Mexican Revolution and against the rise of Fascism in the 1930s. Despite his importance in 20th-century artistic and political circles, Méndez was a relatively obscure figure during his life, and remains so afterwards. The reasons for this generally relate to the fact that he believed in working collaboratively and anonymously for the good of society rather than for monetary gain and because the socialist and communist themes of his work fell out of favor with later generations. Despite this, he has received some posthumous recognition with Mexican scholarship considering him to be the successor to graphics artist José Guadalupe Posada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guillermo Ceniceros</span> Mexican painter and muralist

Guillermo Ceniceros is a Mexican painter and muralist, best known for his mural work in Mexico City, as well as his figurative easel work. He began his mural painting career as an assistant to mural painters such as Federico Cantú, Luis Covarrubias and then David Alfaro Siqueiros who was a mentor and a key influence. Ceniceros is the most notable of Siqueiros' assistants. While he has experimented with abstract expression, his easel work mostly classifies as figurativism and is influenced by the geometrical construct of Mexican muralism. He has had over 300 individual and collective exhibitions in Mexico and the International stage. His work has been recognized by the Mexican Ministry of Culture and several of its institutions. He has painted over 20 large scale Mural Paintings with some of the most notable being the large scale work for the Legislative Palace of San Lazaro as well as his murals in the Metro Subway System. He is a member of the Salón de la Plástica Mexicana. In 1995, the State of Durango, Ceniceros' native state, opened to the public the Guillermo Ceniceros Art Museum within the oversight of the Ministry of Culture. Ceniceros has been reviewed by notable critics such as Berta Taracena, Raquel Tibol, Alaide Foppa, Graciela Kartofel, José Angel Leyva and Eduardo Blackaller among others. There are several publications about his work including a vast review of his art life endeavors developed by the Ministries of Culture of Durango and Nuevo León. He is married to the artist Esther González and lives in his studio house in the Colonia Roma of Mexico City.

Mario Orozco Rivera was a Mexican muralist and painter, a later proponent of Mexican muralism, and whose work was particularly influenced by David Alfaro Siqueiros. He created a number of murals, mostly in the state of Veracruz before becoming an assistant to Siqueiros, directing the Taller Siqueiros in Cuernavaca and working with the artists on projects such as the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros. While preferring mural work, which he considered less commercial, Orozco Rivera also created oils and sculptures. Many of these works were exhibited in Mexico and abroad and can be found in many major collections. His work received recognition in various countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Colonia Nápoles</span> Neighborhood of Mexico City in Benito Juárez

Colonia Nápoles is a colonia, is an officially recognized neighborhood in Benito Juárez borough, Mexico City, and one of the iconic Mid-Century neighborhoods of Mexico City along with Colonia Del Valle.

<i>The History of Mexico</i> (mural) Mural by Diego Rivera in Mexico City, Mexico

The History of Mexico is a mural in the stairwell of the National Palace in Mexico City by Diego Rivera. Produced between 1929 and 1935, the mural depicts Mexico's history from ancient times to the present, with particular emphasis on the struggles of the common Mexican people fighting against the Spanish, the French, and the dictators that controlled the country at different points in its history.

<i>Zapata</i> (lithograph) Lithograph by Diego Rivera

Zapata (1932) is a lithograph by the Mexican artist Diego Rivera (1886–1957) that depicts the Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919) as he holds the reins of a horse among a group of campesinos (peasants). The lithographic edition was created and printed twelve years after Zapata's assassination. Zapata is based on Agrarian Leader Zapata (1931), one of eight "portable" frescoes produced explicitly for Rivera's solo exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in 1931, which was adapted from his previous Revolt panel from a fresco titled The History of Cuernavaca and Morelos (1929–30) painted in the Palace of Cortés, Cuernavaca. There were 100 original prints of the lithograph, many of which are in the collections of various art museums.

La Tallera used to be David Alfaro Siqueiros' workshop, and in recent years it has become one of the most important art spaces in Mexico. It is located in the city of Cuernavaca, Morelos. In the artist's own words: "the space was born of an idea that Diego Rivera and I had since 1920, that is, the creation of a real workshop for Mural Painting; here the different techniques, materials, paintings, perspectives and geometric aspects will be rehearsed".

Arturo Moyers Villena was a Mexican muralist and painter, whose work was influenced by David Alfaro Siqueiros. Many of his mural works are exhibited in government buildings or cultural institutions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casino de la Selva</span> Resort hotel in Cuernavaca, Mexico

The Hotel Casino de la Selva was a hotel and casino located in the city of Cuernavaca, Mexico. The main building was opened in 1931 as a hotel and casino, but from 1934 it was used only as a hotel. Additions in the late 1950s included buildings designed by the architect Félix Candela that were roofed by reinforced concrete paraboloid shells. The interior was decorated with murals by well-known Mexican and Spanish artists. After the 1970s the hotel went into decline, and in 1994 was sold to a hotel chain that failed to pay taxes on the property. It was seized by the Mexican government and was auctioned off in 2001 as a site for construction of a discount store and a hypermarket. After demolition had begun there was a public outcry, and eventually some parts of the murals were preserved.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manuel Suárez y Suárez</span>

Manuel Suárez y Suárez was a Spanish immigrant to Mexico who became a successful entrepreneur and patron of the arts. He is known for the Casino de la Selva in Cuernavaca, the Hotel de México, and the adjacent Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hotel de México</span>

The Hotel de México was to have been the largest hotel in the Americas, a huge project started by the entrepreneur Manuel Suárez y Suárez in 1966 in Mexico City, Mexico. The project ran out of control and was never completed. After Suárez died in 1987 it stood unfinished for several years before being converted into an office building named the World Trade Center.

Electa Arenal, born as Elena Electa Arenal y Huerta, was a Mexican artist, known best as a muralist painter, and sculptor.

References

  1. ↑ "Description". Government of Mexico City. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2011.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Notimex (August 28, 2011). "Alistan nueva galería en el Polyforum Siqueiros" [Enlist new gallery at the Polyforum Siqueiros]. El Universal (in Spanish). Mexico City. Retrieved September 2, 2011.
  3. 1 2 3 4 "Posponen remodelación del Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros" [Postone remodeling of the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros]. El Informador (in Spanish). Guadalajara, Mexico. May 30, 2011. Retrieved September 2, 2011.
  4. ↑ Folgarait, Leonard (1987). So Far From Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 52–53. ISBN   0521330610..
  5. ↑ Suárez y Suárez, Manuel (1975). Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros: Mexico. México: Poliforum Siqueiros.
  6. ↑ "Mexico's 1968 Massacre: What Really Happened?". NPR . Retrieved 2015-04-10.
  7. ↑ Folgarait, Leonard (1987). So Far From Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–25. ISBN   0521330610.
  8. 1 2 3 Suárez y Suárez, Manuel (1975). Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros: Mexico. México: Poliforum Siqueiros.
  9. ↑ Folgarait, Leonard (1987). So Far From Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN   0521330610.
  10. ↑ Folgarait, Leonard (1987). So Far From Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN   0521330610.
  11. ↑ Riding, Alan (June 20, 1971), "Siqueiros: Ten Years and a Polyforum Later", New York Times, pp. D22
  12. ↑ Schonberg, Harold (November 21, 1968). "Siqueiros, 72, Doing Biggest Mural". New York Times.
  13. ↑ Rogovin, Mark (1969). "The March of Humanity: An Expression in Public Art". Rhode Island School of Design Alumni Bulletin. 26: 19.
  14. ↑ Folgarait, Leonard (1987). So Far From Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–55. ISBN   0521330610.
  15. 1 2 "Polyforum Siqueiros | Conocenos | Nosotros". polyforumsiqueiros.com.mx. Archived from the original on 2015-03-27. Retrieved 2015-04-06.
  16. 1 2 3 Folgarait, Leonard (1987). So Far From Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN   0521330610.
  17. ↑ "Polyforum Siqueiros | Foro Universal | Descripción". polyforumsiqueiros.com.mx. Archived from the original on 2015-03-10. Retrieved 2015-03-31.
  18. ↑ Folgarait, Leonard (1987). So Far From Heaven: David Alfaro Siqueiros' The March of Humanity and Mexican Revolutionary Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–72. ISBN   0521330610.
  19. ↑ "What is SFA | Siqueiros Foundation of the Arts". siqueirosfoundation.org. Retrieved 2015-04-10.
  20. ↑ "Continuará en 2011 digitalización del Fondo Siqueiros" [The digitalization of the Siqueiros collection will continue into 2011]. Azteca 21 (in Spanish). Mexico City. January 23, 2011.

Coordinates: 19°23′36″N99°10′24″W / 19.39323°N 99.17343°W / 19.39323; -99.17343

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.