Primary succession

Last updated January 04, 2024

Primary succession on Rangitoto Island, New Zealand Rangitotolavapath.jpg — Primary succession on Rangitoto Island, New Zealand

Primary succession is the beginning step of ecological succession after an extreme disturbance, which usually occurs in an environment devoid of vegetation and other organisms. These environments are typically lacking in soil, as disturbances like lava flow or retreating glaciers scour the environment clear of nutrients.

In contrast, secondary succession occurs on substrates that previously supported vegetation before an ecological disturbance. This occurs when smaller disturbances like floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and fires destroy only the local plant life and leave soil nutrients for immediate establishment by intermediate community species.^[1]

Occurrence

In primary succession pioneer species like lichen, algae and fungi as well as abiotic factors like wind and water start to "normalise" the habitat or in other words start to develop soil and other important mechanisms for greater diversity to flourish. Primary succession begins on rock formations, such as volcanoes or mountains, or in a place with no organisms or soil. Primary succession leads to conditions nearer optimum for vascular plant growth; pedogenesis or the formation of soil, and the increased amount of shade are the most important processes.^[2]

These pioneer lichen, algae, and fungi are then dominated and often replaced by plants that are better adapted to less harsh conditions, these plants include vascular plants like grasses and some shrubs that are able to live in thin soils that are often mineral-based. Water and nutrient levels increase with the amount of succession exhibited.^[3]

The early stages of primary succession are dominated by species with small propagules (seed and spores) which can be dispersed long distances. The early colonizers—often algae, fungi, and lichens—stabilize the substrate. Nitrogen supplies are limited in new soils, and nitrogen-fixing species tend to play an important role early in primary succession.^[4] Unlike in primary succession, the species that dominate secondary succession, are usually present from the start of the process, often in the soil seed bank. In some systems the successional pathways are fairly consistent, and thus, are easy to predict. In others, there are many possible pathways. For example, nitrogen-fixing legumes alter successional trajectories.^[5]

Spores of lichen or fungus, being the pioneer species, are spread onto a land of rocks. Then, the rocks are broken down into smaller particles. Organic matter gradually accumulates, favoring the growth of herbaceous plants like grass, ferns and herbs. These plants further improve the habitat by creating more organic matter when they die, and providing habitats for insects and other small animals.^[6] This leads to the occurrence of larger vascular plants like shrubs, or trees. More animals are then attracted to the area and a climax community is reached.

Species diversity is also a large influence on the stages of succession, and as succession progresses further, species diversity changes with it. For example, there is far less richness and evenness of microorganisms in the very early stages of succession, but late successional stage bacteria are far more even and rich.^[7] This again supports the hypothesis that as more resources are present in later stages of succession, there is enough to support a more diverse ecosystem with many different reproductive strategies. A 2000 case study suggests that plant species composition is more important to later-successional species than simply having high plant diversity early on. ^[8]

Examples

Volcanism

One example of primary succession takes place after a volcano has erupted. The lava flows into the ocean and hardens into new land. The resulting barren land is first colonized by pioneer organisms, like algae, which pave the way for later, less hardy plants, such as hardwood trees, by facilitating pedogenesis, especially through the biotic acceleration of weathering and the addition of organic debris to the surface regolith. An example of this is the island of Surtsey, which is an island formed in 1963 after a volcanic eruption from beneath the sea. Surtsey is off the south coast of Iceland and is being monitored to observe primary succession in progress. About thirty species of plant had become established by 2008 and more species continue to arrive, at a typical rate of roughly 2–5 new species per year.^[9]

A volcanic eruption occurred on Mount St. Helens as well, with primary succession beginning after the destruction of the region's ecosystem. In Mount St. Helens' primary succession, the region was heavily isolated. This type of incident causes the rate of primary succession to be rather low, as many species that excel in establishment lack the ability to effectively disperse into the new frontier.^[10] The opposite is true as well, as species that were not very good at establishing could not survive, even with high dispersal rates. The region has almost no organic materials to utilize, which was especially significant at Mount St. Helens, as its isolated location prevented succession to occur at the periphery of the destruction site. Initially effective long distance colonizers are rare, as they are only truly effective after an initial colonizer has helped to change the region into more suitable conditions.^[11] This is why primary succession was slow in the destroyed region around Mount St. Helens.

Glacier Retreat

Another example is taking place on Signy Island in the South Orkney Islands of Antarctica, due to glacier retreat. Glacier retreat is becoming more normal with the warming climate, and lichens and mosses are the first colonizers. The study, conducted by Favero-Longo et al. found that lichen species diversity varies based on the environmental conditions of the previously existing earth that is first exposed, and the lichens' reproductive patterns.^[12]

The characteristics of succession

By analyzing a case study in Grand Bend, Ontario, a full understanding of the distinction between primary and secondary succession can be accomplished. The two species, Juniperus virginiana and Quercus prinoides, are quickly reproducing and spreading grasses that are associated with primary succession in the dunes of Grand Bend's beaches.^[13] They are classified as r selected species, with high mortality, quick reproduction, and a distinct ability to survive in harsh and nutrient-low conditions. In contrast, ecological development after primary succession completes often leads to a more heavily k selected population, which has lower mortality and slower reproduction rates. In the Grand Bend, this is shown through the succession of oak-pine forests, and the continued reduction of r selected grasses. The timescale is also relevant, as the secondary succession of oak-pine forests occurs approximately 2,900 years after the initial cases of primary succession, while the end of solely grassland dominated dunes occurs around 1,600 years after the beginning of primary succession.^[13] This is extremely important, as it shows a 1,300 year intermittent period in which primary succession is overcome by secondary succession. This period is likely characterized by high species diversity, a mix of k and r selected species, and high community productivity. It is a well-supported principle that an intermediate between k and r dominated populations leads to high productivity and species diversity, while the secondary succession afterwards leads towards climax communities with low species diversity. During this 1,300 year period, it is likely that resources grew into a surplus, which reduced species diversity, resulting in the k dominated oak-pine forest.

It is very difficult to determine exactly what events will hinder or support the growth of a community, as shown in the following example. Very few seedlings survive for a long period of time during primary succession, with 1.7% of seedlings in an outwash plain named Skeiðarársandur in southeast Iceland lasting from 2005 to 2007.^[14] The rest were replaced by new colonizers, as the mortality rates for r selected species like these are extremely high. This is a very important phenomenon to observe, as even though population sizes may remain consistent throughout the history of a region, it is highly likely that many of the r selected organisms present are entirely new organisms. This is one of many factors that are highly unpredictable in the scale of ecological succession.

Related Research Articles

An ecosystem consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the system through photosynthesis and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and microbes.

Soil retrogression and degradation are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil. Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to its natural physical state. Degradation is an evolution, different from natural evolution, related to the local climate and vegetation. It is due to the replacement of primary plant communities by the secondary communities. This replacement modifies the humus composition and amount, and affects the formation of the soil. It is directly related to human activity. Soil degradation may also be viewed as any change or ecological disturbance to the soil perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.

An epiphyte is a plant or plant-like organism that grows on the surface of another plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water or from debris accumulating around it. The plants on which epiphytes grow are called phorophytes. Epiphytes take part in nutrient cycles and add to both the diversity and biomass of the ecosystem in which they occur, like any other organism. They are an important source of food for many species. Typically, the older parts of a plant will have more epiphytes growing on them. Epiphytes differ from parasites in that they grow on other plants for physical support and do not necessarily affect the host negatively. An organism that grows on another organism that is not a plant may be called an epibiont. Epiphytes are usually found in the temperate zone or in the tropics. Epiphyte species make good houseplants due to their minimal water and soil requirements. Epiphytes provide a rich and diverse habitat for other organisms including animals, fungi, bacteria, and myxomycetes.

A lichen is a composite organism that arises from algae or cyanobacteria living among filaments of multiple fungi species in a mutualistic relationship. Lichens are important actors in nutrient cycling and act as producers which many higher trophic feeders feed on, such as reindeer, gastropods, nematodes, mites, and springtails. Lichens have properties different from those of their component organisms. They come in many colors, sizes, and forms and are sometimes plant-like, but are not plants. They may have tiny, leafless branches (fruticose); flat leaf-like structures (foliose); grow crust-like, adhering tightly to a surface (substrate) like a thick coat of paint (crustose); have a powder-like appearance (leprose); or other growth forms.

This glossary of ecology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts in ecology and related fields. For more specific definitions from other glossaries related to ecology, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of evolutionary biology, and Glossary of environmental science.

Pioneer species are hardy species that are the first to colonize barren environments or previously biodiverse steady-state ecosystems that have been disrupted, such as by wildfire.

In scientific ecology, climax community or climatic climax community is a historic term for a community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a steady state. This equilibrium was thought to occur because the climax community is composed of species best adapted to average conditions in that area. The term is sometimes also applied in soil development. Nevertheless, it has been found that a "steady state" is more apparent than real, particularly across long timescales. Notwithstanding, it remains a useful concept.

Ecological succession is the process of change in the species that make up an ecological community over time.

A secondary forest is a forest or woodland area which has regenerated through largely natural processes after human-caused disturbances, such as timber harvest or agriculture clearing, or equivalently disruptive natural phenomena. It is distinguished from an old-growth forest, which has not recently undergone such disruption, and complex early seral forest, as well as third-growth forests that result from harvest in second growth forests. Secondary forest regrowing after timber harvest differs from forest regrowing after natural disturbances such as fire, insect infestation, or windthrow because the dead trees remain to provide nutrients, structure, and water retention after natural disturbances. Secondary forests are notably different from primary forests in their composition and biodiversity; however, they may still be helpful in providing habitat for native species, preserving watersheds, and restoring connectivity between ecosystems.

Forest dynamics describes the underlying physical and biological forces that shape and change a forest ecosystem. The continuous state of change in forests can be summarized with two basic elements: disturbance and succession.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biological soil crust</span> Communities of living organisms on the soil surface in arid and semi-arid ecosystems

Biological soil crusts are communities of living organisms on the soil surface in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. They are found throughout the world with varying species composition and cover depending on topography, soil characteristics, climate, plant community, microhabitats, and disturbance regimes. Biological soil crusts perform important ecological roles including carbon fixation, nitrogen fixation and soil stabilization; they alter soil albedo and water relations and affect germination and nutrient levels in vascular plants. They can be damaged by fire, recreational activity, grazing and other disturbances and can require long time periods to recover composition and function. Biological soil crusts are also known as biocrusts or as cryptogamic, microbiotic, microphytic, or cryptobiotic soils.

Xerosere is a plant succession that is limited by water availability. It includes the different stages in a xerarch succession. Xerarch succession of ecological communities originated in extremely dry situation such as sand deserts, sand dunes, salt deserts, rock deserts etc. A xerosere may include lithoseres and psammoseres.

A lithosere is a plant succession that begins life on a newly exposed rock surface, such as one left bare as a result of glacial retreat, tectonic uplift as in the formation of a raised beach, or volcanic eruptions. For example, the lava fields of Eldgjá in Iceland where Laki and Katla fissures erupted in the year 935 and the solidified lava has, over time, begun to form a lithosere.

Secondary succession is the secondary ecological succession of a plant's life. As opposed to the first, primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event that reduces an already established ecosystem to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil. Many factors can affect secondary succession, such as trophic interaction, initial composition, and competition-colonization trade-offs. The factors that control the increase in abundance of a species during succession may be determined mainly by seed production and dispersal, micro climate; landscape structure ; bulk density, pH, and soil texture.

River ecosystems are flowing waters that drain the landscape, and include the biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions of its many parts. River ecosystems are part of larger watershed networks or catchments, where smaller headwater streams drain into mid-size streams, which progressively drain into larger river networks. The major zones in river ecosystems are determined by the river bed's gradient or by the velocity of the current. Faster moving turbulent water typically contains greater concentrations of dissolved oxygen, which supports greater biodiversity than the slow-moving water of pools. These distinctions form the basis for the division of rivers into upland and lowland rivers.

Ecological facilitation or probiosis describes species interactions that benefit at least one of the participants and cause harm to neither. Facilitations can be categorized as mutualisms, in which both species benefit, or commensalisms, in which one species benefits and the other is unaffected. This article addresses both the mechanisms of facilitation and the increasing information available concerning the impacts of facilitation on community ecology.

Trebouxia is a unicellular green alga. It is a photosynthetic organism that can exist in almost all habitats found in polar, tropical, and temperate regions. It can either exist in a symbiotic relationship with fungi in the form of lichen or it can survive independently as a free-living organism alone or in colonies. Trebouxia is the most common photobiont in extant lichens. It is a primary producer of marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. It uses carotenoids and chlorophyll a and b to harvest energy from the sun and provide nutrients to various animals and insects.

Ecological succession can be understood as a process of changing species composition within a community due to an ecological disturbance, and varies largely according to the initial disturbance prompting the succession. Joseph Connell and Ralph Slatyer further developed the understanding of successional mechanisms in their 1977 paper and proposed that there were 3 main modes of successional development. These sequences could be understood in the context of the specific life-history theories of the individual species within an ecological community.

Marine fungi are species of fungi that live in marine or estuarine environments. They are not a taxonomic group, but share a common habitat. Obligate marine fungi grow exclusively in the marine habitat while wholly or sporadically submerged in sea water. Facultative marine fungi normally occupy terrestrial or freshwater habitats, but are capable of living or even sporulating in a marine habitat. About 444 species of marine fungi have been described, including seven genera and ten species of basidiomycetes, and 177 genera and 360 species of ascomycetes. The remainder of the marine fungi are chytrids and mitosporic or asexual fungi. Many species of marine fungi are known only from spores and it is likely a large number of species have yet to be discovered. In fact, it is thought that less than 1% of all marine fungal species have been described, due to difficulty in targeting marine fungal DNA and difficulties that arise in attempting to grow cultures of marine fungi. It is impracticable to culture many of these fungi, but their nature can be investigated by examining seawater samples and undertaking rDNA analysis of the fungal material found.

Gap dynamics refers to the pattern of plant growth that occurs following the creation of a forest gap, a local area of natural disturbance that results in an opening in the canopy of a forest. Gap dynamics are a typical characteristic of both temperate and tropical forests and have a wide variety of causes and effects on forest life.

References

↑ Baldocchi, Dennis. "Ecosystem Succession: Who/What is Where and When" (PDF). Biomet Lab, University of Ohio, Berkeley. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
↑ "Ecological succession | Definition & Facts | Britannica".
↑ Fujiyoshi et al., "Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Soil Developmental Stages on Herbaceous Plants Growing in the Early Stage of Primary Succession on Mount Fuji".
↑ Korablev and Neshataeva, "Primary Plant Successions of Forest Belt Vegetation on the Tolbachinskii Dol Volcanic Plateau (Kamchatka).”
↑ Chapin, F. Stuart; Pamela A. Matson; Harold A. Mooney (2002). Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology . New York: Springer. pp. 281–304. ISBN 0-387-95443-0.
↑ "Community ecology - the process of succession | Britannica".
↑ Ortiz-Álvarez, Rüdiger; Fierer, Noah; de los Ríos, Asunción; Casamayor, Emilio O.; Barberán, Albert (July 2018). "Consistent changes in the taxonomic structure and functional attributes of bacterial communities during primary succession". The ISME Journal. 12 (7): 1658–1667. doi: 10.1038/s41396-018-0076-2 . ISSN 1751-7370. PMC 6018800 . PMID 29463893. S2CID 3413020.
↑ Van der Putten, W. H.; Mortimer, S. R.; Hedlund, K.; Van Dijk, C.; Brown, V. K.; Lepä, J.; Rodriguez-Barrueco, C.; Roy, J.; Diaz Len, T. A.; Gormsen, D.; Korthals, G. W.; Lavorel, S.; Regina, I. Santa; Smilauer, P. (1 July 2000). "Plant species diversity as a driver of early succession in abandoned fields: a multi-site approach". Oecologia. 124 (1): 91–99. doi:10.1007/s004420050028. ISSN 1432-1939.
↑ The volcano island: Surtsey, Iceland: Plants, Our Beautiful World, retrieved 2 February 2016
↑ Moral, Roger del; Wood, David M. (1993). "Early primary succession on the volcano Mount St. Helens". Journal of Vegetation Science. 4 (2): 223–234. doi:10.2307/3236108. ISSN 1654-1103. JSTOR 3236108.
↑ Walker, Lawrence R., and Roger Del Moral. Primary Succession and Ecosystem Rehabilitation. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
↑ Favero-Longo et al., "Primary Succession of Lichen and Bryophyte Communities Following Glacial Recession on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands, Maritime Antarctic
1 2 Yarranton, G. A.; Morrison, R. G. (1974). "Spatial Dynamics of a Primary Succession: Nucleation". Journal of Ecology. 62 (2): 417–428. doi:10.2307/2258988. ISSN 0022-0477. JSTOR 2258988.
↑ Marteinsdóttir, Bryndís; Svavarsdóttir, Kristín; Thórhallsdóttir, Thóra Ellen (2010). "Development of vegetation patterns in early primary succession". Journal of Vegetation Science. 21 (3): 531–540. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2009.01161.x. ISSN 1654-1103.

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[1] Baldocchi, Dennis. "Ecosystem Succession: Who/What is Where and When" (PDF). Biomet Lab, University of Ohio, Berkeley. Retrieved 9 December 2015.

[2] "Ecological succession | Definition & Facts | Britannica".

[3] Fujiyoshi et al., "Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Soil Developmental Stages on Herbaceous Plants Growing in the Early Stage of Primary Succession on Mount Fuji".

[4] Korablev and Neshataeva, "Primary Plant Successions of Forest Belt Vegetation on the Tolbachinskii Dol Volcanic Plateau (Kamchatka).”

[Chapin281-5] Chapin, F. Stuart; Pamela A. Matson; Harold A. Mooney (2002). Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology . New York: Springer. pp. 281–304. ISBN 0-387-95443-0.

[6] "Community ecology - the process of succession | Britannica".

[7] Ortiz-Álvarez, Rüdiger; Fierer, Noah; de los Ríos, Asunción; Casamayor, Emilio O.; Barberán, Albert (July 2018). "Consistent changes in the taxonomic structure and functional attributes of bacterial communities during primary succession". The ISME Journal. 12 (7): 1658–1667. doi: 10.1038/s41396-018-0076-2 . ISSN 1751-7370. PMC 6018800 . PMID 29463893. S2CID 3413020.

[8] Van der Putten, W. H.; Mortimer, S. R.; Hedlund, K.; Van Dijk, C.; Brown, V. K.; Lepä, J.; Rodriguez-Barrueco, C.; Roy, J.; Diaz Len, T. A.; Gormsen, D.; Korthals, G. W.; Lavorel, S.; Regina, I. Santa; Smilauer, P. (1 July 2000). "Plant species diversity as a driver of early succession in abandoned fields: a multi-site approach". Oecologia. 124 (1): 91–99. doi:10.1007/s004420050028. ISSN 1432-1939.

[plants-9] The volcano island: Surtsey, Iceland: Plants, Our Beautiful World, retrieved 2 February 2016

[10] Moral, Roger del; Wood, David M. (1993). "Early primary succession on the volcano Mount St. Helens". Journal of Vegetation Science. 4 (2): 223–234. doi:10.2307/3236108. ISSN 1654-1103. JSTOR 3236108.

[11] Walker, Lawrence R., and Roger Del Moral. Primary Succession and Ecosystem Rehabilitation. Cambridge University Press, 2003.

[12] Favero-Longo et al., "Primary Succession of Lichen and Bryophyte Communities Following Glacial Recession on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands, Maritime Antarctic

[Yarranton-1974-13] 1 2 Yarranton, G. A.; Morrison, R. G. (1974). "Spatial Dynamics of a Primary Succession: Nucleation". Journal of Ecology. 62 (2): 417–428. doi:10.2307/2258988. ISSN 0022-0477. JSTOR 2258988.

[14] Marteinsdóttir, Bryndís; Svavarsdóttir, Kristín; Thórhallsdóttir, Thóra Ellen (2010). "Development of vegetation patterns in early primary succession". Journal of Vegetation Science. 21 (3): 531–540. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2009.01161.x. ISSN 1654-1103.

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