Reforestation in Nigeria employs both natural and artificial methods. Reforestation involves the deliberate planting of trees and restoring forested areas that have been depleted or destroyed. It involves a planned restocking of the forest to ensure sustainable supply of timber and other forest products. [1] [2] Reforestation, in essence, involves replenishing forests to guarantee a consistent and sustainable supply of timber and various other forest resources. This objective can be accomplished through either natural regeneration techniques or artificial regeneration methods. [1] Both of these approaches have been utilized in the reforestation efforts within Nigeria's forests. [1] At the initiation of the reforestation program in Nigeria, the natural regeneration approach was chosen for two primary reasons. [1] Firstly, it aimed to preserve the rainforest in its original state by allowing it to regenerate naturally from the existing seed bank in the soil. Secondly, and of significant importance, this method was selected due to budgetary constraints, as there were insufficient funds available to establish plantations through direct means. [1]
Reforestation, generally, has many advantages. Equatorial forests, such as those in Nigeria, are often biodiverse ecosystems that support various flora and fauna, promoting ecological balance. Forests play a crucial role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and act as carbon sinks. Sequestering carbon reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Reforestation helps prevent erosion by stabilizing soil, reducing runoff, and promoting humus production from organic matter in situ. Forests play a vital role in regulating water cycles and maintaining healthy Nigerian watersheds. Reforestation helps protect water sources, improves water quality, and reduces the risk of flooding, benefiting both urban and rural communities. Reforestation and afforestation promotes the sustainable management of forest resources, including timber, non-timber forest products, and medicinal plants. [3]
Early attempt at reforestation was based on the tropical shelterwood system of forest regeneration which did not yield the desired result. This forced the Nigerian government to switch over to the artificial regeneration through the establishment of forest plantation in the country. The choice of plants for the plantations were based on industrial needs and growth rate of the plants. As a result, the tropical hardwood such as Milicia excelsa and Antiaris africana were shoved aside and replace with exotic and fast growing species like Tectona grandis , eucalyptus, pines, and Gmelina arborea . Tectona grandis and eucalyptus were preferred because of their straight poles and hardness, which make them fantastic for use as electric transmission poles, while Gmelina and pine were preferred for pulp production, which is used in the manufacture of newsprint and paper. [4]
In 1997, Nigeria's areas of estimated forest plantation was 150,000 hectares. Between 1970 and 1984, 82,434 hectares of plantation were established. [5] By 1998, Nigeria has 196,000 ha and 704 ha in protected areas outside the forest reserves. Between 1985 and 2005, three percent of Nigeria's forest reserves were plantations. [4] In 2010, Nigeria had a total plantation area of 382,000 ha. Gmelina and teak make up about 44 percent of the total trees in the plantation. [6]
At the initiation of the reforestation program in Nigeria, the natural regeneration approach was chosen for two primary reasons. Firstly, it aimed to preserve the rainforest in its original state by allowing it to regenerate naturally from the existing seed bank in the soil. Secondly, and of significant importance, this method was selected due to budgetary constraints, as there were insufficient funds available to establish plantations through direct means. [1]
During the implementation of the Timber Stand Improvement (TSS) initiative, a concurrent endeavor emerged, wherein select colonial forest officers ventured into pioneering trials of artificial regeneration within the confines of Nigeria's moist forest zone. In the year 1930, this distinctive initiative was spearheaded by J. D. Kennedy at Sapoba in Edo State and D. MacGregor at Olokemeji in Oyo State. Notably, these innovative trials encompassed the cultivation of both indigenous and exotic tree species and were meticulously executed within the structured framework of the Taungya Farming System. [1]
The environmental context refers to the general state and conditions of the surroundings within a particular region or area. [7] [8] [9] [10] This encompasses various factors, together with natural resources, ecosystems, climate, and human sports. In Nigeria, the environmental context is various and complicated. It's miles characterized by an extensive range of ecosystems, including rainforests, savannas, wetlands, and coastal areas. [11] [12] Nigeria is located in West Africa and has a tropical climate, with a wet season and a dry season. [13]
Deforestation in Nigeria has been a significant environmental issue for several decades. [14] [15] [16] It is primarily driven by various factors, including:
Deforestation contributes significantly to climate change. [38] [39] When trees are removed, the carbon stored in them is released as carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas. [40] This contributes to the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming and climate disruptions.
Reforestation involves the replanting of trees in areas that have been previously deforested. It is a crucial strategy to mitigate the impacts of deforestation. Here are some key points regarding reforestation:
The historical trajectory of deforestation in Nigeria has exhibited a persistent upward trend since the inception of organized forestry development in 1906. [1] During this period, both natural and artificial reforestation methods were not overlooked, although a significant proportion of initial plantings occurred on experimental and trial plots situated within forest reserves. [1]
The transition from the Tropical Shelterwood System, which proved ineffective in forest regeneration, prompted early foresters to adopt artificial regeneration practices through the establishment of forest plantations across the nation. These plantations, as previously mentioned, encompassed a diverse array of both indigenous and exotic tree species, primarily selected based on their suitability for industrial purposes and their rapid growth characteristics. [1]
The imperative of introducing exotic and fast-growing tree species into plantation development in Nigeria emerged due to the prolonged maturation period observed in tropical hardwoods such as Milicia excelsa and Antiaris africana, which typically spans 60 to 80 years. [1] Notable exotic species were incorporated into the forestry landscape, including Tectona grandis and various Eucalyptus species, primarily on account of their straight boles and hardness. These attributes rendered them well-suited for applications such as electricity transmission line infrastructure. [1]
A glimmer of optimism shines on the four core Niger Delta States, namely Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Delta, and Rivers, through the ongoing Niger Delta Biodiversity Project, which was initiated in 2013 within the region. The Community Biodiversity Action Plan represents a dedicated environmental restoration initiative. [1] In collaboration with the Federal Government of Nigeria, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) have embraced the Community Biodiversity Action Plan (CBAP) as a comprehensive strategy to address the pressing issues of deforestation and the consequential loss of biodiversity within the rural communities of the Niger Delta. [1]
One of the major problems facing Nigerian forests is the shifting-cultivation method of farming, which depletes forests. Shifting cultivation is a method of farming in which a farmer relocates his farm to another place after a period of about three years, as a result of decline in crop yield. The row cropping system may be an alternative to shifting cultivation. The row-cropping method involves a compromise between row cropping and forestry. It involves the growing of food crops and forest crops together, as long as the forest crops allow sunlight to penetrate and reach the food crops. By this system, the land will be in continuous production, providing income to farmers and at the same time preserve the ecosystem. [45]
However, reforestation initiatives in Nigeria faces many obstacles. Among these challenges are inability of the country to maintain basic standard of acquiring regular and up-to-date information on its forest reserves. Most of the information used in making decision on Nigerian forests are based on obsolete information and extrapolation from very old data. [46] In many states, for a period of 10 years (2005–2015), there was low level of government patronage on forest activities, as a result of lack of funds and non-functioning of pulp and paper industry, for which the government oversight was established. [5] Nigerian government has made minimal investment in forestry management due to budgetary limitations. [47]
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.
Reforestation is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands (forestation) that have been depleted, usually through deforestation but also after clearcutting. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes.
Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used narrowly to describe the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. In common usage, however, the term may cover a range of forestry or silviculture activities.
Forestation is a vital ecological process where forests are established and grown through afforestation and reforestation efforts. Afforestation involves planting trees on previously non-forested lands, while reforestation focuses on replanting trees in areas that were once deforested. This process plays an important role in restoring degraded forests, enhancing ecosystems, promoting carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation.
Agroforestry is a land use management system in which combinations of trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland. Agroforestry combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land-use systems. There are many benefits to agroforestry such as increasing farm profitability. In addition, agroforestry helps to preserve and protect natural resources such as controlling soil erosions, creating habitat for the wildlife, and managing animal waste. Benefits also include increased biodiversity, improved soil structure and health, reduced erosion, and carbon sequestration.
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees (forestation) in an area where there was no recent tree cover. In comparison, reforestation means re-establishing forest that have either been cut down or lost due to natural causes, such as fire, storm, etc. There are three types of afforestation: natural regeneration, agroforestry, commercial plantations. There are several benefits from afforestation such as carbon sequestration, increasing rainfall, prevention of topsoil erosion, flood and landslide mitigation, barriers against high winds, shelter for wildlife, employment and alternative sources of wood products.
Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management has to keep the balance between three main pillars: ecological, economic and socio-cultural. The goal of sustainable forestry is to allow for a balance to be found between making use of trees and also maintaining natural patterns of disturbance and regeneration. The forestry industry mitigates climate change by boosting carbon storage in growing trees and soils and improving the sustainable supply of renewable raw materials via sustainable forest management.
The Lower Guinean forests also known as the Lower Guinean-Congolian forests, are a region of coastal tropical moist broadleaf forest in West Africa, extending along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Guinea from eastern Benin through Nigeria and Cameroon.
Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has significant impacts on both local and global scales.
Deforestation is a major threat to biodiversity and ecosystems in Costa Rica. The country has a rich biodiversity with some 12,000 species of plants, 1,239 species of butterflies, 838 species of birds, 440 species of reptiles and amphibians, and 232 species of mammals, which have been under threat from the effects of deforestation. Agricultural development, cattle ranching, and logging have caused major deforestation as more land is cleared for these activities. Despite government efforts to mitigate deforestation, it continues to cause harm to the environment of Costa Rica by impacting flooding, soil erosion, desertification, and loss of biodiversity.
Akure Forest Reserve is a protected area in southwest Nigeria, covering 66 km2 (25 sq mi). The Akure Forest Reserve, established in 1948 and spanning approximately 32 hectares. It was created with the primary aim of safeguarding the genetic diversity of the forest ecosystem. About 11.73% is estimated to be cleared for cocoa farming and other food crops. Aponmu and Owena Yoruba speaking communities owned the forest, though, there are also minor settlements surrounding the forest. They include Ipogun, Kajola/ Aponmu, Kajola, Ago Petesi, Akika Camp, Owena Town, Ibutitan/Ilaro Camp, Elemo Igbara Oke Camp and Owena Water new Dam.
Oluwa Forest Reserve is located in Ondo State, Nigeria and covers over 829 km2 (320 sq mi). It is part of the Omo, Shasha and Oluwa forest reserves, although it has become separated from the Omo and Shasha reserves. The three reserves contain some of the last remaining forest in the area. Although they are biologically unique, they are threatened by logging, hunting and agriculture. The natural vegetation of the area is tropical rainforest. However, the natural vegetation of the area except for the areas devoted to forest reserve has now been reduced to secondary regrowth forest and fallow regrowth at varying stages of development or replaced by perennial and annual crops.
Forest restoration is defined as “actions to re-instate ecological processes, which accelerate recovery of forest structure, ecological functioning and biodiversity levels towards those typical of climax forest” i.e. the end-stage of natural forest succession. Climax forests are relatively stable ecosystems that have developed the maximum biomass, structural complexity and species diversity that are possible within the limits imposed by climate and soil and without continued disturbance from humans. Climax forest is therefore the target ecosystem, which defines the ultimate aim of forest restoration. Since climate is a major factor that determines climax forest composition, global climate change may result in changing restoration aims. Additionally, the potential impacts of climate change on restoration goals must be taken into account, as changes in temperature and precipitation patterns may alter the composition and distribution of climax forests.
Deforestation in British Columbia has resulted in a net loss of 1.06 million hectares of tree cover between the years 2000 and 2020. More traditional losses have been exacerbated by increased threats from climate change driven fires, increased human activity, and invasive species. The introduction of sustainable forestry efforts such as the Zero Net Deforestation Act seeks to reduce the rate of forest cover loss. In British Columbia, forests cover over 55 million hectares, which is 57.9% of British Columbia's 95 million hectares of land. The forests are mainly composed of coniferous trees, such as pines, spruces and firs.
Deforestation is a primary contributor to climate change, and climate change affects forests. Land use changes, especially in the form of deforestation, are the second largest anthropogenic source of atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions, after fossil fuel combustion. Greenhouse gases are emitted during combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions. As of 2019, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating. Growing forests are a carbon sink with additional potential to mitigate the effects of climate change. Some of the effects of climate change, such as more wildfires, insect outbreaks, invasive species, and storms are factors that increase deforestation.
Carbon farming is a name for a variety of agricultural methods aimed at sequestering atmospheric carbon into the soil and in crop roots, wood and leaves. The aim of carbon farming is to increase the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material with the goal of creating a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. Increasing a soil's organic matter content can aid plant growth, increase total carbon content, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture.
The biogeographic regionalization of Earth's terrestrial biodiversity, known as Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World (TEOW), is made up of 867 ecoregions that are divided into 14 biomes. In addition to offering a comprehensive map of terrestrial biodiversity, TEOW also provides a global species database for ecological analyses and priority setting, a logical biogeographic framework for large-scale conservation strategies, a map for enhancing biogeographic literacy, and a foundation for the Global 200.
In Nigeria, firewood is a traditional source of energy for domestic and commercial use. Fuel wood is derived from cutting and burning wood materials such as logs and twigs. It has long been prevalent among rural and sometimes urban dwellers.
Long before deforestation became an issue of major concern, different cultural practices and traditions of the world has substantially conserved nature with divers approaches. This does not exclude the local communities of Nigeria where the traditions passed down from one generation to the next has played a great role in preserving some forest to this day.
Fruit production is a major driver of deforestation around the world. In tropical countries, forests are often cleared to plant fruit trees, such as bananas, pineapples, and mangos. This deforestation is having a number of negative environmental impacts, including biodiversity loss, ecosystem disruption, and land degradation.
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