Rhodococcus

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Rhodococcus
Rhodococcus species.jpg
Rhodococcus sp.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Mycobacteriales
Family: Nocardiaceae
Genus: Rhodococcus
Zopf 1891
Type species
Rhodococcus rhodochrous
(Zopf 1891) Tsukamura 1974 (Approved Lists 1980)
Species

See text.

Synonyms [1]
  • "Prescottella" Jones et al. 2013
  • "Prescottia" Jones et al. 2013
  • "Spelaeibacter" Kim et al. 2022

Rhodococcus is a genus of aerobic, nonsporulating, nonmotile Gram-positive bacteria closely related to Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium . [2] [3] While a few species are pathogenic, most are benign, and have been found to thrive in a broad range of environments, including soil, water, and eukaryotic cells. Some species have large genomes, including the 9.7 megabasepair genome (67% G/C) of Rhodococcus sp. RHA1. [4]

Contents

Strains of Rhodococcus are important owing to their ability to catabolize a wide range of compounds and produce bioactive steroids, acrylamide, and acrylic acid, and their involvement in fossil fuel biodesulfurization. [4] This genetic and catabolic diversity is not only due to the large bacterial chromosome, but also to the presence of three large linear plasmids. [2] Rhodococcus is also an experimentally advantageous system owing to a relatively fast growth rate and simple developmental cycle, but is not well characterized. [4]

Another important application of Rhodococcus comes from bioconversion, using biological systems to convert cheap starting material into more valuable compounds, such as its ability to metabolize harmful environmental pollutants, including toluene, naphthalene, herbicides, and PCBs. Rhodococcus species typically metabolize aromatic substrates by first oxygenating the aromatic ring to form a diol (two alcohol groups). Then, the ring is cleaved with intra/extradiol mechanisms, opening the ring and exposing the substrate to further metabolism. Since the chemistry is very stereospecific, the diols are created with predictable chirality. While controlling the chirality of chemical reaction presents a significant challenge for synthetic chemists, biological processes can be used instead to faithfully produce chiral molecules in cases where direct chemical synthesis is not feasible or efficient. An example of this is the use of Rhodococcus to produce chiral indandiol derivatives which serve as synthetic intermediates for indinavir, a protease inhibitor used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. [5]

The conversion of indene to trans-1R,2R-indandiol and cis-1S,2R-indandiol by Rhodococcus sp. Rhodococcus Indandiol.svg
The conversion of indene to trans-1R,2R-indandiol and cis-1S,2R-indandiol by Rhodococcus sp.

Biodegradation of organic pollutants

Rhodococcus has been greatly researched as a potential agent for the bioremediation of pollutants as it is commonly found in the natural environment, and they possess certain characteristics that allow them to thrive under a variety of conditions, and they have the capability to metabolize many hydrocarbons. [7]

Rhodococci possess many properties that makes them suitable for bioremediation under a range of environments. Their ability to undergo microaerophilic respiration allows them to survive in environments containing low oxygen concentrations, and their ability to undergo aerobic respiration also allows them to survive in oxygenated environments. [8] They also undergo nitrogen fixation, which allows them to generate their own nutrients in environments with low nutrients. [9]

Rhodococci also contain characteristics that enhances their ability to degrade organic pollutants. Their hydrophobic surface allows for adhesion to hydrocarbons, which enhances its ability to degrade these pollutants. [10] They have a wide variety of catabolic pathways and many unique enzyme functions. [11] This gives them the ability to degrade many recalcitrant, toxic hydrocarbons. For example, Rhodococci expresses dioxygenases, which can be used to degrade benzotrifluoride, a recalcitrant pollutant. [12] Rhodococcus sp. strain Q1, a strain naturally found in soil and paper mill sludge, contains the ability to degrade quinoline, various pyridine derivatives, catechol, benzoate, and protocatechuic acid. [13] Rhodococci are also capable of accumulating heavy metal ions, such as radioactive caesium, allowing for easier removal from the environment. [14] Other pollutants, such as azo dyes, [15] pesticides [16] and polychlorinated biphenyls [17] can also be degraded by Rhodococci.

Scanning electron micrograph of Rhodococcus sp. strain Q1 grown on quinoline - the organism can use quinoline as a sole source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy, tolerating concentrations up to 3.88 millimoles per liter. Rhodococcus sp..jpg
Scanning electron micrograph of Rhodococcus sp. strain Q1 grown on quinoline - the organism can use quinoline as a sole source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy, tolerating concentrations up to 3.88 millimoles per liter.

Pathogenic Rhodococcus

The genus Rhodococcus has two pathogenic species: R. fascians and R. equi . The former, a plant pathogen, causes leafy gall disease in both angiosperm and gymnosperm plants. [18] R. equi is the causative agent of foal pneumonia (rattles) and mainly infects foals up to three months in age. However, it has a wide host range, sporadically infecting pigs, cattle, and immunocompromised humans, in particular AIDS patients and those undergoing immunosuppressive therapy. [19] Both pathogens rely on a conjugative virulence plasmid to cause disease. In case of R. fascians, this is a linear plasmid, whereas R. equi harbors a circular plasmid. Both pathogens are economically significant. R. fascians is a major pathogen of tobacco plants. R. equi, one of the most important foal pathogens, is endemic on many stud farms around the world.

In molecular biology

Rhodococcus has also been identified as a contaminant of DNA extraction kit reagents and ultrapure water systems, which may lead to its erroneous appearance in microbiota or metagenomic datasets. [20]

Species

Rhodococcus comprises the following species: [1]

Rhodococcus rhodnii on agar plate Rhodococcus rhodnii NRRL B-16535 (Type Strain).jpg
Rhodococcus rhodnii on agar plate
Rhodococcus zopfii on agar plate Rhodococcus zopfii NRRL B-16942 (Type Strain).jpg
Rhodococcus zopfii on agar plate

Notes

  1. ↑ Rhodococcus jostii was identified as producing a lignin digesting enzyme—the first isolated from a bacterium rather than a fungus. [22] [23]

Related Research Articles

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<i>Micrococcus</i> Genus of bacteria

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<i>Burkholderia cenocepacia</i> Species of bacterium

Burkholderia cenocepacia is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in soil and water environments and may also be associated with plants and animals, particularly as a human pathogen. It is one of over 20 species in the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) and is notable due to its virulence factors and inherent antibiotic resistance that render it a prominent opportunistic pathogen responsible for life-threatening, nosocomial infections in immunocompromised patients, such as those with cystic fibrosis or chronic granulomatous disease. The quorum sensing systems CepIR and CciIR regulate the formation of biofilms and the expression of virulence factors such as siderophores and proteases. Burkholderia cenocepacia may also cause disease in plants, such as in onions and bananas. Additionally, some strains serve as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria.

<i>Rhodococcus fascians</i> Species of bacterium

Rhodococcus fascians is a Gram positive bacterial phytopathogen that causes leafy gall disease. R. fascians is the only phytopathogenic member of the genus Rhodococcus; its host range includes both dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous hosts. Because it commonly afflicts tobacco (Nicotiana) plants, it is an agriculturally significant pathogen.

<i>Pseudomonas stutzeri</i> Species of bacterium

Pseudomonas stutzeri is a Gram-negative soil bacterium that is motile, has a single polar flagellum, and is classified as bacillus, or rod-shaped. While this bacterium was first isolated from human spinal fluid, it has since been found in many different environments due to its various characteristics and metabolic capabilities. P. stutzeri is an opportunistic pathogen in clinical settings, although infections are rare. Based on 16S rRNA analysis, this bacterium has been placed in the P. stutzeri group, to which it lends its name.

Microbial biodegradation is the use of bioremediation and biotransformation methods to harness the naturally occurring ability of microbial xenobiotic metabolism to degrade, transform or accumulate environmental pollutants, including hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic compounds, pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides and metals.

<i>Rhodococcus equi</i> Species of bacterium

Rhodococcus equi is a Gram-positive coccobacillus bacterium. The organism is commonly found in dry and dusty soil and can be important for diseases of domesticated animals. The frequency of infection can reach near 60%. R. equi is an important pathogen causing pneumonia in foals. Since 2008, R. equi has been known to infect wild boar and domestic pigs. R. equi can infect humans. At-risk groups are immunocompromised people, such as HIV-AIDS patients or transplant recipients. Rhodococcus infection in these patients resemble clinical and pathological signs of pulmonary tuberculosis. It is facultative intracellular.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Benzylsuccinate synthase</span>

The enzyme benzylsuccinate synthase catalyzes the chemical reaction

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aryldialkylphosphatase</span>

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Novosphingobium aromaticivorans is a species of bacteria. It is an aromatic compound-degrading bacteria, it is gram-negative, non-spore-forming, non-motile and rod-shaped. It is found in deep-terrestrial-subsurface sediments.

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References

  1. 1 2 Euzéby JP, Parte AC. "Rhodococcus". List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN). Retrieved June 25, 2022.
  2. 1 2 van der Geize R. & L. Dijkhuizen (2004). "Harnessing the catabolic diversity of rhodococci for environmental and biotechnological applications". Microbiology. 7 (3): 255–261. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2004.04.001. hdl:11370/a1dfa0fd-dd65-4c1d-b9b4-bfa98038dcbe. PMID   15196492.
  3. ↑ Burkovski A., ed. (2008). Corynebacteria: Genomics and Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN   978-1-904455-30-1. .
  4. 1 2 3 McLeod MP, Warren RL, Hsiao WW, Araki N, Mihre M, Fernandes C, Miyazawa D, Wong W, Lillquist AL, Wang D, Dosanjh M, Hara H, Petrescu A, Morin RD, Yang G, Stott JM, Schein JE, Shin H, Smailus D, Siddiqui AS, Marra MA, Jones SJ, Holt R, Brinkman FS, Miyauchi K, Fukuda M, Davies JE, Mohn WW, Eltis LD (October 17, 2006). "The complete genome of Rhodococcus sp. RHA1 provides insights into a catabolic powerhouse". PNAS. 103 (42): 15582–15587. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10315582M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0607048103 . PMC   1622865 . PMID   17030794.
  5. ↑ Treadway, S.L., K.S. Yanagimachi, E. Lankenau, P.A. Lessard, G. Stephanopoulos and A.J. Sinskey (1999). "Isolation and characterization of indene bioconversion genes from Rhodococcus strain I24". Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 51 (6): 786–793. doi:10.1007/s002530051463. PMID   10422226. S2CID   6264248.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Buckland, Barry C.; Drew, Stephen W.; Connors, Neal C.; Chartrain, Michel M.; Lee, Chanyong; Salmon, Peter M.; Gbewonyo, Kodzo; Zhou, Weichang; Gailliot, Pat; Singhvi, Rahul; Olewinski, Roger C.; Sun, Wen-Jun; Reddy, Jayanthi; Zhang, Jinyou; Jackey, Barbara A.; Taylor, Colleen; Goklen, Kent E.; Junker, Beth; Greasham, Randolph L. (January 1999). "Microbial Conversion of Indene to Indandiol: A Key Intermediate in the Synthesis of CRIXIVAN". Metabolic Engineering. 1 (1): 63–74. doi:10.1006/mben.1998.0107. PMID   10935755.
  7. ↑ Alvarez, Héctor (2010). Biology of Rhodococcus. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 231–256. ISBN   9783642129377.
  8. ↑ Fuller, M.E.; Perreault, N. (July 8, 2010). "Microaerophilic degradation of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) by three Rhodococcus strains". Letters in Applied Microbiology. 51 (3): 313–318. doi: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2010.02897.x . PMID   20666987.
  9. ↑ Blasco, Rafael (2001). "Rhodococcus sp. RB1 grows in the presence of high nitrate and nitrite concentrations and assimilates nitrate in moderately saline environments". Archives of Microbiology. 175 (6): 435–440. doi:10.1007/s002030100285. PMID   11491084. S2CID   864067.
  10. ↑ Mendez-Volas, A. (2012). Microbes in applied research; current advances and challenges; proceedings. World Scientific. pp. 197–200. ISBN   9789814405034.
  11. ↑ Laczi, Krisztián; Kis, Ágnes; Horváth, Balázs; Maróti, Gergely; Hegedüs, Botond (November 2015). "Metabolic responses of Rhodococcus erythropolis PR4 grown on diesel oil and various hydrocarbons" (PDF). Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 99 (22): 9745–9759. doi:10.1007/s00253-015-6936-z. PMID   26346267. S2CID   9213608.
  12. ↑ Yano, Kenichi; Wachi, Masaaki; Tsuchida, Sakiko; Kitazume, Tomoya; Iwai, Noritaka (2015). "Degradation of benzotrifluoride via the dioxygenase pathway in Rhodococcus sp. 065240". Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 79 (3): 496–504. doi: 10.1080/09168451.2014.982502 . ISSN   1347-6947. PMID   25412819. S2CID   205616972.
  13. ↑ O'Loughlin, E.J.; Kehrmeyer, S.R.; Sims, G.K. (1996). "Isolation, characterization, and substrate utilization of a quinoline degrading bacterium". International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation. 38 (2): 107–118. doi:10.1016/S0964-8305(96)00032-7.
  14. ↑ Takei, Takayuki; Yamasaki, Mika; Yoshida, Masahiro (2014-04-01). "Cesium accumulation of Rhodococcus erythropolis CS98 strain immobilized in hydrogel matrices". Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 117 (4): 497–500. doi:10.1016/j.jbiosc.2013.09.013. PMID   24183457.
  15. ↑ Heiss, G. S.; Gowan, B.; Dabbs, E. R. (1992-12-01). "Cloning of DNA from a Rhodococcus strain conferring the ability to decolorize sulfonated azo dyes". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 78 (2–3): 221–226. doi: 10.1016/0378-1097(92)90030-r . ISSN   0378-1097. PMID   1490602.
  16. ↑ Parekh, N. R.; Walker, A.; Roberts, S. J.; Welch, S. J. (November 1994). "Rapid degradation of the triazinone herbicide metamitron by a Rhodococcus sp. isolated from treated soil". The Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 77 (5): 467–475. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.1994.tb04389.x. ISSN   0021-8847. PMID   8002472.
  17. ↑ Boyle, Alfred W.; Silvin, Christopher J.; Hassett, John P.; Nakas, James P.; Tanenbaum, S. W. (1992-06-01). "Bacterial PCB biodegradation". Biodegradation. 3 (2–3): 285–298. doi:10.1007/BF00129089. ISSN   0923-9820. S2CID   7272347.
  18. ↑ Goethals, K.; Vereecke, D.; Jaziri, M.; Van, Montagu M.; Holsters, M. (2001). "Leafy gall formation by Rhodococcus fascians". Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 39: 27–52. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.39.1.27. PMID   11701858.
  19. ↑ Muscatello, G.; Leadon, D. P.; Klay, M.; Ocampo-Sosa, A.; Lewis, D. A.; Fogarty, U.; Buckley, T.; Gilkerson, J. R.; Meijer, W. G.; et al. (2007). "Rhodococcus equi infection in foals: the science of 'rattles'". Equine Vet. J. 39 (5): 470–478. doi:10.2746/042516407x209217. PMID   17910275.
  20. ↑ Salter, S; Cox, M; Turek, E; Calus, S; Cookson, W; Moffatt, M; Turner, P; Parkhill, J; Loman, N; Walker, A (2014). "Reagent contamination can critically impact sequence-based microbiome analyses". bioRxiv   10.1101/007187 .
  21. ↑ Ramaprasad, E. V. V.; Mahidhara, Ganesh; Sasikala, Ch.; Ramana, Ch. V. (2018). "Rhodococcus electrodiphilus sp. nov., a marine electro active actinobacterium isolated from coral reef". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 68 (8): 2644–2649. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.002895 . PMID   29957174.
  22. ↑ "First wood-digesting enzyme found in bacteria could boost biofuel production".
  23. ↑ Takeuchi, M; Hatano, K; Sedlácek, I; Pácová, Z (2002). "Rhodococcus jostii sp. nov., isolated from a medieval grave". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 52 (Pt 2): 409–13. doi: 10.1099/00207713-52-2-409 . PMID   11931149.
  24. ↑ Chaudhary, Dhiraj Kumar; Kim, Jaisoo (2018). "Rhodococcus olei sp. nov., with the ability to degrade petroleum oil, isolated from oil-contaminated soil". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 68 (5): 1749–1756. doi: 10.1099/ijsem.0.002750 . PMID   29620494.


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