Bias is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing,usually in a way that is closed-minded,prejudicial,or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual,a group,or a belief. In science and engineering,a bias is a systematic error. Statistical bias results from an unfair sampling of a population,or from an estimation process that does not give accurate results on average.
Essentialism is the view that objects have a set of attributes that are necessary to their identity. In early Western thought,Plato's idealism held that all things have such an "essence"—an "idea" or "form". In Categories,Aristotle similarly proposed that all objects have a substance that,as George Lakoff put it,"make the thing what it is,and without which it would be not that kind of thing". The contrary view—non-essentialism—denies the need to posit such an "essence'".
Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived evaluation or classification of another person based on that person's perceived personal characteristics,such as political affiliation,sex,gender,gender identity,beliefs,values,social class,age,disability,religion,sexuality,race,ethnicity,language,nationality,culture,complexion,beauty,height,body weight,occupation,wealth,education,criminality,sport-team affiliation,music tastes or other perceived characteristics.
Alvin Ira Goldman is an American philosopher who is Emeritus Board of Governors Professor of Philosophy and Cognitive Science at Rutgers University in New Jersey and a leading figure in epistemology.
Margaret Ann Boden is a Research Professor of Cognitive Science in the Department of Informatics at the University of Sussex,where her work embraces the fields of artificial intelligence,psychology,philosophy,and cognitive and computer science.
Stephen P. Stich is an American academic who is Distinguished Professor of Philosophy and Cognitive Science at Rutgers University,as well as an Honorary Professor in Philosophy at the University of Sheffield. Stich's main philosophical interests are in the philosophy of mind,epistemology,and moral psychology. His 1983 book,From Folk Psychology to Cognitive Science:The Case Against Belief,received much attention as he argued for a form of eliminative materialism about the mind. He changed his mind,in later years,as indicated in his 1996 book Deconstructing the Mind.
The psychology of science is a branch of the studies of social science defined most simply as the study of scientific thought or behavior. It is a collection of studies of various topics. The thought of psychology has been around since the late 19th century. Research on the psychology of science began in 1874,the field has seen a substantial expansion of activity in recent years. The specific field of psychology as a science first gained popularity mostly in the 1960s,with Abraham Maslow publishing an influential text on the subject,but this popularity faded,only re-emerging in the 1980s. Other studies of science include philosophy of science,history of science,and sociology of science or sociology of scientific knowledge.
Susan Tufts Fiske is the Eugene Higgins Professor of Psychology and Public Affairs in the Department of Psychology at Princeton University. She is a social psychologist known for her work on social cognition,stereotypes,and prejudice. Fiske leads the Intergroup Relations,Social Cognition,and Social Neuroscience Lab at Princeton University. Her theoretical contributions include the development of the stereotype content model,ambivalent sexism theory,power as control theory,and the continuum model of impression formation.
The Society for Philosophy and Psychology (SPP) is a professional organization in North America that promotes discussion and research at the intersection of philosophy,psychology and cognitive science. Its stated purpose is "to promote interaction between philosophers,psychologists and other cognitive scientists on issues of common concern." To this end,it organizes an annual conference,maintains a listserve,and awards research prizes.
Alan M. Leslie is a Scottish psychologist and Professor of Psychology and Cognitive science at Rutgers University,where he directs the Cognitive Development Laboratory (CDL) and is co-director of the Rutgers University Center for Cognitive Science (RUCCS) along with Ernest Lepore.
The Princeton University Department of Psychology,located in Peretsman-Scully Hall,is an academic department of Princeton University in Princeton,New Jersey. For over a century,the department has been one of the most notable psychology departments in the country. It has been home to psychologists who have made well-known scientific discoveries in the fields of psychology and neuroscience.
In social psychology,a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group. The type of expectation can vary;it can be,for example,an expectation about the group's personality,preferences,appearance or ability. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized,inaccurate,and resistant to new information,but can sometimes be accurate.
Amy Joy Casselberry Cuddy is an American social psychologist,author and speaker. She is a proponent of "power posing",a self-improvement technique whose scientific validity has been questioned. She has served as a faculty member at Rutgers University,Kellogg School of Management and Harvard Business School. Cuddy's most cited academic work involves using the stereotype content model that she helped develop to better understand the way people think about stereotyped people and groups. Though Cuddy left her tenure-track position at Harvard Business School in the spring of 2017,she continues to contribute to its executive education programs.
Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science,technology,engineering,and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since the origins of these fields in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment.
Jane Jebb Mansbridge is an American political scientist. She is the Charles F. Adams Professor of Political Leadership and Democratic Values in the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.
Logology is the study of all things related to science and its practitioners—philosophical,biological,psychological,societal,historical,political,institutional,financial. The term "logology" is back-formed from the suffix "-logy",as in "geology","anthropology",etc.,in the sense of the "study of science". The word "logology" provides grammatical variants not available with the earlier terms "science of science" and "sociology of science",such as "logologist","logologize","logological",and "logologically". The emerging field of metascience is a subfield of logology.
The New York University Department of Philosophy is ranked 1st in the US and 1st in the English-speaking world as of the most recent edition of the Philosophical Gourmet Report from 2021. It is also ranked 1st in the world by the 2023 QS World University Rankings,and is internationally renowned. It has particular strengths in epistemology,history of philosophy,logic,metaphysics,moral and political philosophy,philosophy of language,philosophy of logic and philosophy of mathematics,and philosophy of mind. The department offers B.A.,M.A.,and Ph.D. degrees in philosophy,as well as a minor in philosophy and a joint major in language and mind with the NYU Departments of Linguistics and Psychology. It is home to the New York Institute of Philosophy,a research center that supports multi-year projects,public lectures,conferences,and workshops in the field,as well as outreach programs to teach New York City high school students interested in philosophy.
Kristina Reiss Olson is a psychologist and a professor at Princeton University in Princeton,NJ. She is known for her research on the development of social categories,transgender youth,and variation in human gender development. Olson was recipient of the 2016 Janet Taylor Spence Award from the Association for Psychological Science for transformative early career contributions,and the 2014 SAGE Young Scholars Award. Olson received the Alan T. Waterman Award from the National Science Foundation in 2018,and was the first psychological scientist to receive this prestigious award honoring early-career scientists. Olson is a member of the 2018 cohort of MacArthur "Genius" fellows.
Rebecca Bigler is a developmental psychologist known for research on social stereotyping,prejudice,and children's perceptions of discrimination. Bigler is Professor of Psychology at the University of Texas at Austin.
Laila Alawa is a Syrian-American entrepreneur,psychology researcher,and writer. Her work on examining gendered stereotypes in STEM led to results displaying continued issues in discrimination and prejudice against female scientists. She is recognized by The New York Times as an innovator for her global media &entertainment company,The Tempest. In 2018,Alawa was named to Forbes 30 Under 30 Lists In America and Europe.
