Scaphiopus holbrookii

Last updated

Contents

Scaphiopus holbrookii
Scaphiopus holbrookii1-.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Scaphiopodidae
Genus: Scaphiopus
Species:
S. holbrookii
Binomial name
Scaphiopus holbrookii
(Harlan, 1835)
Synonyms
  • Rana holbrookiiHarlan, 1835
  • Scaphiopus solitarius Holbrook, 1836
  • Scaphiopus holbrookii– Cope, 1889

Scaphiopus holbrookii, commonly known as the eastern spadefoot, is a species of American spadefoot toad (family Scaphiopodidae) endemic to the eastern United States. It is not considered a true toad, with Bufonidae being the family of "true toads". [2] [1] [3] [4]

Taxonomy

The epithet, holbrookii, is in honor of John Edwards Holbrook, American herpetologist. [5] A similar species is Hurter's spadefoot toad, which was once considered a subspecies of S. holbrookii. [6]

Unlike some other spadefoot toad species, such as Spea multiplicata (the Mexican or desert spadefoot) or Spea bombifrons (the plains spadefoot toad), Scaphiopus holbrookii never naturally develop cannibal tadpoles through phenotypic plasticity. Researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill believe this is because the eastern spadefoot is most representative of the first spadefoot toads to evolve. [7] [8]

Distribution and habitat

It is mostly found in the southeastern United States, except for mountainous areas, and is also found northward along the Atlantic coast into southern New England, where it is considered rare. It is found in inland states such as Pennsylvania and New York, but only as far westward as the Appalachian Mountains, and the Hudson River Valley in New York. [9] Absent from the Appalachians, but occurs west of them in Tennessee, Kentucky, and southern reaches Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. [10] They are endangered Connecticut where it is found that they only have one viable population in the state. [11]

Prefers habitats with loose, commonly sandy, soils for burrowing [12] like Longleaf pine forests with open understories from intermittent natural burn events. [13] Most abundant in forests with little leaf litter and sparse shrubs [4] . Research has looked into the habitat selection of the species and has found that it tends to hover around upland areas. It has shown preference for being close to deciduous shrub edges, low-growing pitch pine branches, and reindeer lichen. This environment provides an easy place to burrow, a dense prey biomass, and protection from predators. [14]

Description

An American eastern spadefoot. American Eastern Spadefoot Toad.JPG
An American eastern spadefoot.

The average length of an adult eastern spadefoot is 44–57 mm (1+3⁄4–2+1⁄4 in). It is brownish in color, with two yellowish stripes on its back. These stripes, which begin on the upper eyelids, may diverge or converge, resulting in a pattern resembling a lyre or an hourglass. Some specimens may be very dark, with less distinct markings. [9] The skin is normally smoother and moister than other toads. [15] Their skin is also sparsely peppered with little warts across the entirety of the body. [16] The eastern spadefoot belongs in one of only four groups of burrowing terrestrial anurans. [17] It has one spur on each of its back feet for burrowing. [6] The spur is generally three times longer than the other toes. [18]

Behavior

Scaphiopus holbrookii spends almost all of its life deep underground; emerging only to breed or feed. It remains in a type of hibernation almost all its life. It burrows in a spiral. [19]

One study used passive integrated transponders (PIT tags) to monitor emergence from burrows. The study found that S. holbrookii emerge about 43% of the nights they were monitored. They are much more likely to emerge if they had emerged the night prior as well. They also tended to emerge more frequently from their burrows on nights that were warmer and more humid, or the night after/during rain. Other than the emergence after rain and during breeding season, these animals do not have a specific pattern to their burrow emergence; the movements seem to be very random. [20]

Diet & Predation

Although Scaphiopus holbrookii is both diurnal and nocturnal, most foraging for food sources, consisting of small invertebrates such as termites, insects, arachnids, worms, ants, beetles, and grasshoppers is completed during the day [21] . Some species will completely leave to burrow in search of prey; however, a common tactic for the eastern spadefoot is to simply sit at the opening of the burrow and wait for prey to pass by. [22]

Being burrowing species, spadefoot toads avoid a large amount of predation at the surface, but when exposed during foraging or breeding, they are preyed upon by mammals such as opossums and racoons, birds, and snakes. [23]

Reproduction

S. holbrookii requires fish-free ephemeral ponds for breeding but occupies other habitats such as longleaf pine and wiregrass ecosystems when not breeding. [4] They use inguinal amplexus while mating [4] . Eastern spadefoot toads are explosive breeders during sufficient rainfall and eggs are usually attached to submerged vegetation. [24] Hatching and development rates are highly variable, mediated by ambient air and water temperatures, hatching as quickly as under 12 hours, slowly as over 7 days, and develop into adults in 14-60 days. [25] The eastern spadefoot toad can breed in almost any month of the year. [19] Even though they can breed during any month they do always breed at night to lessen the threat of predation. [26] Due to the explosive breeding, once eggs hatch often food becomes limited from the large populations of tadpoles. S. holbrookii tadpoles are known to be omnivorous. In the event of food shortages some larvae adapt aggressive feeding habits consuming large animal prey including other S. holbrookii tadpoles. These cannibalistic morphs develop at a heightened rate and become much larger tadpoles in comparison to the non-cannibal morphs. [27]

Conservation status

While not listed as an endangered species by the U.S. federal government, S. holbrookii is considered "threatened" in Massachusetts [28] and Connecticut. [29] In that state and in 13 others, it is listed as a "Species of Greatest Conservation Need". [30]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Frog</span> Order of amphibians

A frog is any member of a diverse and largely carnivorous group of short-bodied, tailless amphibians composing the order Anura. The oldest fossil "proto-frog" Triadobatrachus is known from the Early Triassic of Madagascar, but molecular clock dating suggests their split from other amphibians may extend further back to the Permian, 265 million years ago. Frogs are widely distributed, ranging from the tropics to subarctic regions, but the greatest concentration of species diversity is in tropical rainforest. Frogs account for around 88% of extant amphibian species. They are also one of the five most diverse vertebrate orders. Warty frog species tend to be called toads, but the distinction between frogs and toads is informal, not from taxonomy or evolutionary history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wood frog</span> Species of amphibian

Lithobates sylvaticus or Rana sylvatica, commonly known as the wood frog, is a frog species that has a broad distribution over North America, extending from the boreal forest of the north to the southern Appalachians, with several notable disjunct populations including lowland eastern North Carolina. The wood frog has garnered attention from biologists because of its freeze tolerance, relatively great degree of terrestrialism, interesting habitat associations, and relatively long-range movements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">European spadefoot toad</span> Family of amphibians

The European spadefoot toads are a family of frogs, the Pelobatidae, with only one extant genus Pelobates, containing six species. They are native to Europe, the Mediterranean, northwestern Africa, and western Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mexican burrowing toad</span> Species of amphibian

The Mexican burrowing toad is the single living representative of the family Rhinophrynidae. It is a unique species in its taxonomy and morphology, with special adaptations to assist them in digging burrows where they spend most of their time. These adaptations include a small pointed snout and face, keratinized structures and a lack of webbing on front limbs, and specialized tongue morphology to assist in feeding on ants and termites underground. The body is nearly equal in width and length. It is a dark brown to black color with a red-orange stripe on its back along with splotches of color on its body. The generic name Rhinophrynus means 'nose-toad', from rhino- (ῥῑνο-), the combining form of the Ancient Greek rhis and phrunē.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American spadefoot toad</span> Family of amphibians

The Scaphiopodidae are a family of American spadefoot toads, which are native to North America. The family is small, comprising only seven different species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">American toad</span> Species of amphibian

The American toad is a common species of toad found throughout Canada and the eastern United States. It is divided into three subspecies: the eastern American toad, the dwarf American toad and the rare Hudson Bay toad. Recent taxonomic treatments place this species in the genus Anaxyrus instead of Bufo.

<i>Spea hammondii</i> Species of amphibian

Spea hammondii, also known as the western spadefoot, western spadefoot toad, Hammond's spadefoot, or Hammond's spadefoot toad, is a species of amphibian in the family Scaphiopodidae. It is found in western California (USA) and northwestern Baja California (Mexico). The specific name hammondii is in honor of physician and naturalist William Alexander Hammond.

<i>Scaphiopus</i> Genus of amphibians

Scaphiopus is a genus of North American amphibian commonly referred to as the North American spadefoots, southern spadefoots, or eastern spadefoot toads. They differ greatly from true toads by having eyes with vertical pupils, no parotoid gland, and relatively smooth skin. Their most distinctive feature is a spade-like projection on their hind feet, from which their common name is derived. This projection enables spadefoot toads to dig in loose soils with ease. Its scientific name means ‘spade-foot’ as well, from the Ancient Greek skaphís and pous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern hognose snake</span> Species of snake

The eastern hog-nosed snake, is a species of mildly venomous rear-fanged snake in the family Colubridae. The species is endemic to North America. There are no subspecies that are recognized as being valid. This species prefers habitats with sandy soils and a combination of grass fields and forest edges. They come in many different colorations and have the identifiable upturned "snout". They can be found in captivity but are a more difficult species to keep due to a specialized diet of toads.

<i>Spea</i> Genus of amphibians

Spea is a genus of North American amphibian commonly referred to as the western spadefoot toads. They differ greatly from true toads by having eyes with vertical pupils, no parotoid glands, and relatively smooth skin. Their most distinctive feature is a spade-like projection on their hind feet, from which their common name is derived. This projection enables spadefoot toads to dig in loose soils with ease. Its name is from the Ancient Greek speos

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Texas toad</span> Species of amphibian

The Texas toad is a species of medium-sized toad that occurs in the southern United States and northern Mexico. It breeds in temporary water pools after heavy rains.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Couch's spadefoot toad</span> Species of amphibian

Couch's spadefoot toad or Couch's spadefoot is a species of North American spadefoot toad. The specific epithet couchii is in honor of American naturalist Darius Nash Couch, who collected the first specimen while on a personal expedition to northern Mexico to collect plant, mineral, and animal specimens for the Smithsonian Institution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hurter's spadefoot toad</span> Species of amphibian

Hurter's spadefoot toad or Hurter's spadefoot is a species of American spadefoot toad found in the south central United States ; its range might extend to the adjacent northern Mexico. It was once classified as a subspecies of the eastern spadefoot toad, but it has been granted its own species status. The specific name hurterii is in honor of the Swiss-American naturalist and curator of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences, Julius Hurter.

<i>Gastrophryne carolinensis</i> Species of amphibian

Gastrophryne carolinensis, the eastern narrow-mouthed toad, is a species of microhylid frog. It is a relatively small, toad-like amphibian found in damp, shady habitats. The species is highly fossorial, and feeds primarily on ants. These North American microhylids are distinguished from true toads, and other anurans by their moist, smooth skin, their lack of eardrums or tympana, their distinguishable squat body shape, and the unique fold of skin superior to their eyes. It is found in the United States, from southern Maryland to the Florida Keys, west to Missouri and Texas. While not a true toad, it is so called because it is terrestrial.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plains spadefoot toad</span> Species of amphibian

The plains spadefoot toad is a species of American spadefoot toad which ranges from southwestern Canada, throughout the Great Plains of the western United States, and into northern Mexico. Like other species of spadefoot toads, they get their name from a spade-like projection on their hind legs which allows them to dig into sandy soils. Their name, in part, comes from their keratinized metatarsals, which are wide instead of "sickle shaped". The species name translates as buzzing leaf shaped. This refers to the species' distinguishing features; its buzzing mating call, and its leaf-shaped digging metatarsals. It was first described by Cope in 1863.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New Mexico spadefoot toad</span> Species of amphibian

The New Mexico spadefoot toad is a species of American spadefoot toad found in the southwestern United States and Mexico. Like other species of spadefoot toad, they get their name from a distinctive spade-like projections on their hind legs, which enable them to dig in sandy soils. Spea multiplicata can be identified by its wedge-shaped spade. Some sources also refer to the species as the Mexican spadefoot toad, desert spadefoot toad or southern spadefoot toad.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yosemite toad</span> Species of amphibian

The Yosemite toad is a species of true toad in the family Bufonidae. Endemic to the Sierra Nevada of California, the species ranges from the Alpine County to Fresno County. Yosemite toads are only found in the montane to subalpine elevational zone of 1,950–3,445 m (6,398–11,302 ft) asl. The Yosemite toad is similar to the nearby western toad, but in many ways adapted to a high elevation lifestyle. It was initially described during the Grinnell Survey of California, by an undergraduate student of Joseph Grinnell named Charles Camp.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Basin spadefoot</span> Species of amphibian

The Great Basin spadefoot is an amphibian in the family Scaphiopodidae. It is 3.8 to 6.3 centimetres long and is usually colored gray, olive or brown. Great Basin spadefoot toads have adapted to life in dry habitats. They use the hard, keratinized spade on each foot to dig a burrow, where they spend long periods during cold and dry weather. They are opportunistic hunters and will eat anything they can subdue. While their tadpoles have numerous predators, adults are able to produce skin secretions that deter enemies.

<i>Pelobates cultripes</i> Species of amphibian

Pelobates cultripes is a toad species in the family Pelobatidae. It is known under many different common names, including the western spadefoot, Iberian spadefoot toad, Spanish spadefoot toad, and Wagler's spadefoot toad. It is found in most of the Iberian Peninsula with isolated populations southern and western France.

<i>Pelobates syriacus</i> Species of amphibian

Pelobates syriacus, the eastern spadefoot or Syrian spadefoot, is a species of toad in the family Pelobatidae, native to an area extending from Eastern Europe to Western Asia.

References

  1. 1 2 IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2022). "Scaphiopus holbrookii". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2022: e.T59042A196336701. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T59042A196336701.en . Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  2. ↑ Moran, Katherine, and Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004.
  3. ↑ Frost, Darrel R. (2015). "Scaphiopus holbrookii (Harlan, 1835)". Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0. American Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Greenberg, Cathryn H.; Tanner, George W. (2004-12-01). "Breeding Pond Selection and Movement Patterns by Eastern Spadefoot Toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii) in Relation to Weather and Edaphic Conditions". Journal of Herpetology. 38 (4): 569–577. doi:10.1670/5-04A. ISSN   0022-1511. S2CID   16533250.
  5. ↑ Bo Beolens; Michael Watkins; Michael Grayson (22 April 2013). The Eponym Dictionary of Amphibians. Pelagic Publishing. p. 96. ISBN   978-1-907807-44-2.
  6. 1 2 "Eastern Spadefoot Toad". eNature. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
  7. ↑ Pennisi, Elizabeth (28 November 2018). "Cannibalistic tadpoles and matricidal worms point to a powerful new helper for evolution". ScienceMag.org. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  8. ↑ Levis, N.A.; Isdaner, A.J.; Pfennig, D.W. (2018). "Morphological novelty emerges from pre-existing phenotypic plasticity". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 2 (8): 1289–1297. doi:10.1038/s41559-018-0601-8. PMID   29988161. S2CID   256708228.
  9. 1 2 Conant, Roger. 1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. Second Edition. Houghton Mifflin. Boston. 429 pp. ISBN   0-395-19977-8 (pbk.) (Scaphiopus holbrooki holbrooki, p. 299 + Plate 44 + Map 253.)
  10. ↑ Wasserman, A. O. (1968). Scaphiopus holbrookii. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles (CAAR)
  11. ↑ Moran, Katherine, and Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004.
  12. ↑ Johnson, K. A. (2003). Abiotic factors influencing the breeding, movement, and foraging of the eastern spadefoot (scaphiopus holbrookii) in west virginia
  13. ↑ Greenberg CH, Tanner GW (2004) Breeding Pond Selection and Movement Patterns by Eastern Spadefoot Toads (Scaphiopus holbrookii) in Relation to Weather and Edaphic Conditions. Journal of Herpetology 38:569–577. https://doi.org/10.1670/5-04A
  14. ↑ Timm, Brad C., et al. “Upland Movement Patterns and Habitat Selection of Adult Eastern Spadefoots (Scaphiopus holbrookii) at Cape Cod National Seashore.” Journal of Herpetology, vol. 48, no. 1, 2014, pp. 84–97. doi : 10.1670/12-201
  15. ↑ Overduijn, K. (n.d.). Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii). Species Profile: Eastern Spadefoot Toad (Scaphiopus holbrookii) | SREL Herpetology. Retrieved 11 February 2023.
  16. ↑ Moran, Katherine, and Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004.
  17. ↑ https://palaeo-electronica.org/content/content/2015/1299-neoichnology-of-toads. Johnson, L. M., & Hembree, D. I. (2015). Neoichnology of the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii (Anura: Scaphiopodidae): criteria for recognizing anuran burrows in the fossil record. Palaeontologia Electronica, 18(2), 1-29.
  18. ↑ https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/45000/0070_Scaphiopus_holbrookii.pdf?sequence=1 Wasserman, A. O. (1968). Scaphiopus holbrookii. Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles (CAAR). Retrieved February 11, 2023
  19. 1 2 Erickson, M.R., Scott, D.E., Jones, K.L. et al.; Development and characterization of ten microsatellite loci for the eastern spadefoot toad, Scaphiopus holbrookii. Conservation Genetics Resources 2, 143–145 (2010). doi : 10.1007/s12686-010-9198-1
  20. ↑ Ryan, Calhoun, A. J. K., Timm, B. C., & Zydlewski, J. D. (2015). Monitoring Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus holbrookii) Response to Weather with the Use of a Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) System. Journal of Herpetology, 49(2), 257–263. doi : 10.1670/12-230
  21. ↑ Whitaker, John O.; Rubin, David; Munsee, Jack R. (1977). "Observations on Food Habits of Four Species of Spadefoot Toads, Genus Scaphiopus". Herpetologica. 33 (4): 468–475. ISSN   0018-0831.
  22. ↑ Smith, Tristan. "Scaphiopus holbrookii (Eastern Spadefoot)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  23. ↑ Johnson, K. A. (2003). Abiotic factors influencing the breeding, movement, and foraging of the eastern spadefoot (scaphiopus holbrookii) in west virginia
  24. ↑ "Virginia Herpetological Society". www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com. Retrieved 2022-04-05.
  25. ↑ Richmond ND (1947) Life History of Scaphiopus Holbrookii Holbrookii (Harlan). Part I: Larval Development and Behavior. Ecology 28:53–67. https://doi.org/10.2307/1932918
  26. ↑ Moran, Katherine, and Charles E. Button. “A GIS model for identifying Eastern spadefoot toad (scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in Eastern Connecticut.” Applied Geography, vol. 31, no. 3, July 2011, pp. 980–989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004.
  27. ↑ "Meet the larval amphibians that morph to become cannibals". Animals. 2019-06-26. Archived from the original on March 2, 2021. Retrieved 2022-04-06.
  28. ↑ "Eastern Spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrookii" (pdf). List of Endangered, Threatened, and Special Concern species. Massachusetts Division of Fisheries & Wildlife. 2015. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
  29. ↑ Moran, Katherine, and Charles E. Button. "A GIS model for identifying eastern spadefoot toad (Scaphiopus holbrookii) habitat in eastern Connecticut." Applied Geography 31.3 (2011): 980-989. doi : 10.1016/j.apgeog.2011.01.004
  30. ↑ "USGS map of S. holbrookii by state wildlife action plan (SWAP)" (dynamic map). USGS Core Science Analytics, Synthesis, and Libraries. USGS . Retrieved 5 May 2020.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.